In many forested ecosystems, the architecture and functional ecology of certain tree species define forest structure and their species‐specific traits control ecosystem dynamics. Such foundation tree species are declining throughout the world due to introductions and outbreaks of pests and pathogens, selective removal of individual taxa, and over‐harvesting. Through a series of case studies, we show that the loss of foundation tree species changes the local environment on which a variety of other species depend; how this disrupts fundamental ecosystem processes, including rates of decomposition, nutrient fluxes, carbon sequestration, and energy flow; and dramatically alters the dynamics of associated aquatic ecosystems. Forests in which dynamics are controlled by one or a few foundation species appear to be dominated by a small number of strong interactions and may be highly susceptible to alternating between stable states following even small perturbations. The ongoing decline of many foundation species provides a set of important, albeit unfortunate, opportunities to develop the research tools, models, and metrics needed to identify foundation species, anticipate the cascade of immediate, short‐ and long‐term changes in ecosystem structure and function that will follow from their loss, and provide options for remedial conservation and management.

No abstract

Accurately quantifying evapotranspiration (ET) is essential for modelling regional-scale ecosystem water balances. This study assembled an ET data set estimated from eddy flux and sapflow measurements for 13 ecosystems across a large climatic and management gradient from the United States, China, and Australia. Our objectives were to determine the relationships among monthly measured actual ET (ET), calculated FAO-56 grass reference ET (ET o ), measured precipitation (P), and leaf area index (LAI)-one associated key parameter of ecosystem structure. Results showed that the growing season ET from wet forests was generally higher than ET o while those from grasslands or woodlands in the arid and semi-arid regions were lower than ET o . Second, growing season ET was found to be converged to within š10% of P for most of the ecosystems examined. Therefore, our study suggested that soil water storage in the nongrowing season was important in influencing ET and water yield during the growing season. Lastly, monthly LAI, P, and ET o together explained about 85% of the variability of monthly ET. We concluded that the three variables LAI, P, and ET o , which were increasingly available from remote sensing products and weather station networks, could be used for estimating monthly regional ET dynamics with a reasonable accuracy. Such an empirical model has the potential to project the effects of climate and land management on water resources and carbon sequestration when integrated with ecosystem models.

[1] Shallow landslides are a significant hazard in steep, soil-mantled landscapes. During intense rainfall events, the distribution of shallow landslides is controlled by variations in landscape gradient, the frictional and cohesive properties of soil and roots, and the subsurface hydrologic response. While gradients can be estimated from digital elevation models, information on soil and root properties remains sparse. We investigated whether geomorphically controlled variations in ecology affect the spatial distribution of root cohesion by measuring the distribution and tensile strength of roots from soil pits dug downslope of 15 native trees in the southern Appalachian Mountains, North Carolina, United States. Root tensile strengths from different hardwood tree species were similar and consistently higher than the only native shrub species measured (Rhododendron maximum). Roots were stronger in trees found on noses (areas of divergent topography) relative to those in hollows (unchanneled, convergent topography) coincident with the variability in cellulose content. This cellulose variability is likely related to topographic differences in soil water potential. For all species, roots were concentrated close to the soil surface, with roots in hollows being more evenly distributed in the soil column than those on noses. Trees located on noses had higher mean root cohesion than those in hollows because of a higher root tensile force. R. maximum had the shallowest, weakest roots suggesting that recent expansion of this species due to fire suppression has likely lowered the root cohesion of some hollows. Quantification of this feedback between physiologic controls on root growth and slope hydrology has allowed us to create a curvature-based model of root cohesion that is a significant improvement on current models that assume a spatially averaged value.

Analyses of long-term records at 35 headwater basins in the United States and Canada indicate that climate change effects on streamflow are not as clear as might be expected, perhaps because of ecosystem processes and human influences. Evapotranspiration was higher than was predicted by temperature in water-surplus ecosystems and lower than was predicted in water-deficit ecosystems. Streamflow was correlated with climate variability indices (e.g., the El Nino-Southern Oscillation, the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, the North Atlantic Oscillation), especially in seasons when vegetation influences are limited. Air temperature increased significantly at 17 of the 19 sites with 20-to 60-year records, but streamflow trends were directly related to climate trends (through changes in ice and snow) at only 7 sites. Past and present human and natural disturbance, vegetation succession, and human water use can mimic, exacerbate, counteract, or mask the effects of climate change on streamflow, even in reference basins. Long-term ecological research sites are ideal places to disentangle these processes.

No abstract

We monitored sap flux density (v) diurnally in nine mature southeastern pine (Pinus spp.) trees with a thermal dissipation probe that spanned the sapwood radius. We found the expected pattern of high v near the cambium and decreasing v with depth toward the center of the tree; however, the pattern was not constant within a day or between trees. Radial profiles of trees were steeper earlier in the day and became less steep later in the day. As a result, time-dependent changes in the shape of the radial profile of v were sometimes correlated with daily changes in evaporative demand. As the radial profile became less steep, the inner xylem contributed relatively more to total tree sap flow than it did earlier in the day. We present a 3-parameter Gaussian function that can be used to describe the radial distribution of v in trees. Parameters in the function represent depth in the xylem from the cambium, maximum v, depth in the xylem where maximum v occurs, and the rate of radial change in v with radial depth (beta). Values of beta varied significantly between trees and with time, and were sometimes correlated with air vapor pressure deficit (D). We hypothesize that this occurred during periods of high transpiration when the water potential gradient became great enough to move water in the inner sapwood despite its probable high hydraulic resistance. We examined discrepancies among estimates of daily water use based on single-point, two-point and multi-point (i.e., every 20 mm in the sapwood) measurements. When radial distribution of v was not considered, a single-point measurement resulted in errors as large as 154% in the estimate of daily water use relative to the estimate obtained from a multi-point measurement. Measuring v at two close sample points (10 and 30 mm) did not improve the estimate; however, estimates derived from v measured at two distant sample points (10 and 70 mm) significantly improved the estimate of daily water use, although errors were as great as 32% in individual trees. The variability in v with depth in the xylem, over time, and between trees indicates that measurements of the radial distribution of v are necessary to accurately estimate water flow in trees with large sapwood areas.

Recent studies have shown that planted pine stands exhibit higher evapotranspiration (ET) and are more sensitive to climatic conditions compared with hardwood stands. Whether this is due to management and stand effects, biological effects or their interaction is poorly understood. We estimated growing season canopy-and sap flux-scaled leaf-level transpiration (E c and E L ) in five major overstory species over 3 years. Four hardwood species, Liriodendron tulipifera, Carya spp., Quercus rubra and Quercus prinus, were measured in an unmanaged watershed. Pinus strobus was measured in an adjacent planted pine watershed. We hypothesized that (1) species would differ in E L and stomatal conductance (G S ), and their relationship with vapour pressure deficit (D); and (2) differences in growing season ET between the stands would result primarily from the differences in interception (E i ). Growing season ET in the planted pine stand exceeded hardwood ET by twofold during all 3 years. Transpiration and E i contributed similarly to the ET difference, suggesting that physiological differences were equally as important as structural factors to the overall difference in ET. Among species, mean E L and G S differed significantly, as did their relationship with D. E L and G S of oaks and hickories were least responsive to changing D, while L. tulipifera and P. strobus were most responsive. This species-level understanding of variation in E L and G S and their interactions with climatic driving variables has important implications for predicting watershed-level responses to stand management, species invasion and loss, and climate variability. Published in 2010. This article is a US Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.