Copyright 2016 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science; all rights reserved.Land use and related pressures have reduced local terrestrial biodiversity, but it is unclear how the magnitude of change relates to the recently proposed planetary boundary ( safe limit ).We estimate that land use and related pressures have already reduced local biodiversity intactness-the average proportion of natural biodiversity remaining in local ecosystems-beyond its recently proposed planetary boundary across 58.1%of the worlds land surface, where 71.4% of the human population live. Biodiversity intactness within most biomes (especially grassland biomes), most biodiversity hotspots, and even some wilderness areas is inferred to be beyond the boundary. Such widespread transgression of safe limits suggests that biodiversity loss, if unchecked, will undermine efforts toward long-term sustainable development

The PREDICTS project—Projecting Responses of Ecological Diversity In Changing Terrestrial Systems (www.predicts.org.uk)—has collated from published studies a large, reasonably representative database of comparable samples of biodiversity from multiple sites that differ in the nature or intensity of human impacts relating to land use. We have used this evidence base to develop global and regional statistical models of how local biodiversity responds to these measures. We describe and make freely available this 2016 release of the database, containing more than 3.2 million records sampled at over 26,000 locations and representing over 47,000 species. We outline how the database can help in answering a range of questions in ecology and conservation biology. To our knowledge, this is the largest and most geographically and taxonomically representative database of spatial comparisons of biodiversity that has been collated to date; it will be useful to researchers and international efforts wishing to model and understand the global status of biodiversity.

Extra-pair paternity is the result of copulation between a female and a male other than her social partner. In socially monogamous birds, old males are most likely to sire extra-pair offspring. The male manipulation and female choice hypotheses predict that age-specific male mating behaviour could explain this old-over-young male advantage. These hypotheses have been difficult to test because copulations and the individuals involved are hard to observe. Here, we studied the mating behaviour and pairing contexts of captive house sparrows, Passer domesticus. Our set-up mimicked the complex social environment experienced by wild house sparrows. We found that middle-aged males, which would be considered old in natural populations, gained most extra-pair paternity. However, both, female solicitation behaviour and subsequent extra-pair matings were not associated with male age. Further, copulations were more likely when solicited by females than when initiated by males (i.e. unsolicited copulations). Male initiated within-pair copulations were more common than male initiated extra-pair copulations. To conclude, our results did not support either hypothesis regarding age-specific male mating behaviour. Instead, female choice, independent of male age, governed copulation success, especially in an extra-pair context. Post-copulatory mechanisms might determine why older males sire more extra-pair offspring.

21Extra-pair paternity is the result of copulation between a female and a male other than 22 her social partner. In socially monogamous birds, old males are most likely to sire 23 extra-pair offspring. The male manipulation and female choice hypotheses predict that 24 age-specific male mating behaviour could explain this old-over-young male 25advantage. These hypotheses have been difficult to test because copulations and the 26 individuals involved are hard to observe. Here, we studied the mating behaviour and 27 pairing contexts of captive house sparrows, Passer domesticus. Our set-up mimicked 28 the complex social environment experienced by wild house sparrows. We found that 29 middle-aged males, that would be considered old in natural populations, gained most 30 extra-pair paternity. However, both female solicitation behaviour and subsequent 31 extra-pair matings were unrelated to male age. Further, copulations were more likely 32 when solicited by females than those initiated by males (i.e. unsolicited copulations), 33 and unsolicited within-pair copulations were more common than unsolicited extra-34 pair copulations. To conclude, our results did not support either hypotheses regarding 35 age-specific male mating behaviour. Instead, female choice, independent of male age, 36 governed copulation success, especially in an extra-pair context and post-copulatory 37 mechanisms might determine why older males sire more extra-pair offspring. 38 39

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