24Food security considerations have shifted in recent years, with the recognition that available food 25 should also be nutritious and safe. There is a growing evidence base for contamination of maize 26 and other crops by fungal toxins in the tropics and sub-tropics. As an initial snapshot of 27 contamination by one of these toxins in Rwanda, Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) was analyzed in 684 28 samples of maize flour collected in seven principal retail markets of Kigali and in 21 samples of 29 animal feed from seven feed vendors. Two rounds of sample collections were carried out, the 30 first in September 2014 and the second in January 2015. A questionnaire given to vendors was 31 used to determine if gender and education level of vendors, origin of maize and awareness of 32 aflatoxins had any significant effect on AFB1 level in collected samples. Enzyme-Linked 33 Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and Immuno-affinity fluorimetery were used to analyze samples. 34 Only markets had a significant effect on AFB1 level; for the two collections, differences were 35 inconsistent among markets. In the first round, market means of AFB1 varied between 8.0+5.57 36 µg/kg and 24.7+23.74 µg/kg and for the second round, between 10.4+8.4 µg/kg and 25.7+25.85 37 µg/kg. In most animal feed samples AFB1 was >100 µg/kg. None of the vendors interviewed 38 was aware of the risk of mycotoxin contamination in their maize-based flours and feed. Limits 39 set by the United States Food and Drug Administration (20 µg/kg) for total aflatoxins and 40 European Commission (2 µg/kg) for AFB1 for maize flour imports, were varied between 2-35% 41 and 66-100% of samples, respectively. The implications of this study for human and animal 42 health in Rwanda suggest that expanded surveys are needed to understand the scope of 43 contamination, given the influence of environment and other factors on aflatoxin accumulation. 44 Available options to mitigate and monitor aflatoxin contamination can be further deployed to 45 reduce contamination.46 47

No abstract

A4cigni. §/i.pw/cz b4iJciyei. subsp. mon/ancï (CAErysobcz/cïnczceOEe) is known, in the Great Lakes Region, to possess toxicological properties. In this paper, we investigated the acute toxicity (dose levels 50-1600 mgAEg) of its aqueous extract, administered orally to adult Wi. §/c]r rats.This study demonstrated that the freeze-dried aqueous extract (5%, w/w) possesses high toxicity. The extract caused hypothermia, neurological disorders, including extensor reflex of maximal convulsfve induced-seizures at about 2 h after the administered dose, and death occumed (LD5o = 370 mgn{g) in a dose dependent manner.Blood parameter evaluation revealed slight variations, but these might not have clinical relevance. Histological examination of intemal organs (lungs, liver, heart and kidneys) did not reveal any abnormality in the treated group compared to the control. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mcign!.s/!.pw/ci bwfczyc!. subsp. monfczncz aqueous extract, given oral]y, is toxic and that its target is the central nervous system.General phytochemical screening revealed that the plant did not contain significant amounts of products known to be toxic, such as alkaloids or cardioactive glycosides, but only catechic tannins, amino acids, saponins and other aphrogen principles in the three parts of the species (fruit, leave and bark).

It was therefore concluded that patients under psychotropic treatment in Rwanda are exposed to both the risk of drug ineffectiveness and the risk of toxicity (54%) with only 46% of results within the TRR. Consequently, TDM is needed to optimise psychotropic treatment in Rwandan patients.