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Over the past 30 years substantial research has focused on the concept of self-leadership. The authors adopt a multilevel perspective to review this research at both individual and team levels of analysis. At the individual level, studies consistently show that increased self-leadership corresponds with better affective responses and improved work performance. Findings are not as consistent at the team level. Relationships between team-level self-leadership and both affective and performance outcomes appear to be moderated by contextual factors. The authors also identify internal and external forces that influence self-leadership. Among these forces, external leadership is particularly important, as self-leadership is not a complete substitute for external leadership. Specifically, external leadership in the forms of empowering leadership and shared leadership facilitate self-leadership of individuals and teams. The authors also identify a number of cross-level research questions that illustrate how future research can benefit from exploring ways that self-leadership at the individual level interacts with self-leadership at the team level.

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SummaryA key foundation of empowering organizations is employee self-leadership. This study examines the eects of self-leadership skills and self-ecacy perceptions on performance. Structural equations modeling determined whether the in¯uence of self-leadership on performance is mediated by self-ecacy perceptions. Results for the sample of 151 respondents indicated self-leadership strategies had a signi®cant eect on self-ecacy evaluations, and self-ecacy directly aected performance. Further, self-ecacy perceptions were found to fully mediate the self-leadership/performance relationship. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. #

SummaryThought self-leadership involves employee self-influence through cognitive strategies that focus on individual self-dialogue, mental imagery, beliefs and assumptions, and thought patterns. A training intervention-based field study with a control group was undertaken to empirically examine the applicability of thought self-leadership in an organizational setting (of bankruptcy financial status), and the potential for cognitions to be self-controlled. Results suggested that individuals who received the thought self-leadership training experienced increased mental performance, positive affect (enthusiasm), job satisfaction, and decreased negative affect (nervousness) relative to those not receiving the training. Additionally, the trainees reported a strong and positive reaction to the training. Finally, those who received the training experienced enhanced perceptions of self-efficacy and more optimistic perceptions of the organization's bankruptcy condition than those not receiving the training.

Self-leadership theory can be described as the 'process of influencing oneself as opposed to the influence of leaders over followers (Manz, 1983(Manz, , 1986. We focus on and develop a model for a particular aspect of self-leadershipthought self-leadership ~ emphasizing two primary elements, self-talk and mental imagery. The major thrust of this model is that employees can influence or lead themselves by utilizing specific cognitive strategies that focus on individual self-dialogue and mental imagery. It is proposed that constructive thought management through the effective application of cognitive strategies can lead to enhanced individual and organizational performance.

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