S100 proteins are widely expressed small molecular EF-hand calcium-binding proteins of vertebrates, which are involved in numerous cellular processes, such as Ca2+ homeostasis, proliferation, apoptosis, differentiation, and inflammation. Although the complex network of S100 signalling is by far not fully deciphered, several S100 family members could be linked to a variety of diseases, such as inflammatory disorders, neurological diseases, and also cancer. The research of the past decades revealed that S100 proteins play a crucial role in the development and progression of many cancer types, such as breast cancer, lung cancer, and melanoma. Hence, S100 family members have also been shown to be promising diagnostic markers and possible novel targets for therapy. However, the current knowledge of S100 proteins is limited and more attention to this unique group of proteins is needed. Therefore, this review article summarises S100 proteins and their relation in different cancer types, while also providing an overview of novel therapeutic strategies for targeting S100 proteins for cancer treatment.

Patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) provide a unique platform to study hereditary disorders and predisposition syndromes by resembling germline mutations of affected individuals and by their potential to differentiate into nearly every cell type of the human body. We employed plucked human hair from two siblings with a family history of cancer carrying a pathogenic CDKN2A variant, P16-p.G101W/P14-p.R115L, to generate patient-specific iPSCs in a cancer-prone ancestry for downstream analytics. The differentiation capacity to pancreatic progenitors and to pancreatic duct-like organoids (PDLOs) according to a recently developed protocol remained unaffected. Upon inducible expression of KRASG12Dusing a piggyBac transposon system in CDKN2A-mutated PDLOs, we revealed structural and molecular changes in vitro, including disturbed polarity and epithelial-to-mesenchymal (EMT) transition. CDKN2A-mutated KRASG12DPDLO xenotransplants formed either a high-grade precancer lesion or a partially dedifferentiated PDAC-like tumor. Intriguingly, P14/P53/P21 and P16/RB cell-cycle checkpoint controls have been only partly overcome in these grafts, thereby still restricting the tumorous growth. Hereby, we provide a model for hereditary human pancreatic cancer that enables dissection of tumor initiation and early development starting from patient-specific CDKN2A-mutated pluripotent stem cells.

Within the pancreas, Keratin 19 (KRT19) labels the ductal lineage and is a determinant of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). To investigate KRT19 expression dynamics, we developed a human pluripotent stem cell (PSC)‐based KRT19‐mCherry reporter system in different genetic backgrounds to monitor KRT19 expression from its endogenous gene locus. A differentiation protocol to generate mature pancreatic duct‐like organoids was applied. While KRT19/mCherry expression became evident at the early endoderm stage, mCherry signal was present in nearly all cells at the pancreatic endoderm (PE) and pancreatic progenitor (PP) stages. Interestingly, despite homogenous KRT19 expression, mCherry positivity dropped to 50% after ductal maturation, indicating a permanent switch from biallelic to monoallelic expression. DNA methylation profiling separated the distinct differentiation intermediates, with site‐specific DNA methylation patterns occurring at the KRT19 locus during ductal maturation. Accordingly, the monoallelic switch was partially reverted upon treatment with a DNA‐methyltransferase inhibitor. In human PDAC cohorts, high KRT19 levels correlate with low locus methylation and decreased survival. At the same time, activation of oncogenic KRASG12D signalling in our reporter system reversed monoallelic back to biallelic KRT19 expression in pancreatic duct‐like organoids. Allelic reactivation was also detected in single‐cell transcriptomes of human PDACs, which further revealed a positive correlation between KRT19 and KRAS expression. Accordingly, KRAS mutant PDACs had higher KRT19 mRNA but lower KRT19 gene locus DNA methylation than wildtype counterparts. KRT19 protein was additionally detected in plasma of PDAC patients, with higher concentrations correlating with shorter progression‐free survival in gemcitabine/nabPaclitaxel‐treated and opposing trends in FOLFIRINOX‐treated patients. Apart from being an important pancreatic ductal lineage marker, KRT19 appears tightly controlled via a switch from biallelic to monoallelic expression during ductal lineage entry and is aberrantly expressed after oncogenic KRASG12D expression, indicating a role in PDAC development and malignancy. Soluble KRT19 might serve as a relevant biomarker to stratify treatment. © 2023 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

Background The reactivation of genetic programs from early development is a common mechanism for injury-induced organ regeneration. T-box 3 (TBX3) is a member of the T-box family of transcription factors previously shown to regulate pluripotency and subsequent lineage commitment in a number of tissues, including limb and lung. TBX3 is also involved in lung and heart organogenesis. Here, we provide a comprehensive and thorough characterization of TBX3 and its role during pancreatic organogenesis and regeneration. Results We interrogated the level and cell specificity of TBX3 in the developing and adult pancreas at mRNA and protein levels at multiple developmental stages in mouse and human pancreas. We employed conditional mutagenesis to determine its role in murine pancreatic development and in regeneration after the induction of acute pancreatitis. We found that Tbx3 is dynamically expressed in the pancreatic mesenchyme and epithelium. While Tbx3 is expressed in the developing pancreas, its absence is likely compensated by other factors after ablation from either the mesenchymal or epithelial compartments. In an adult model of acute pancreatitis, we found that a lack of Tbx3 resulted in increased proliferation and fibrosis as well as an enhanced inflammatory gene programs, indicating that Tbx3 has a role in tissue homeostasis and regeneration. Conclusions TBX3 demonstrates dynamic expression patterns in the pancreas. Although TBX3 is dispensable for proper pancreatic development, its absence leads to altered organ regeneration after induction of acute pancreatitis.