Purpose of ReviewArboviruses, viruses transmitted by arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, sandflies, and fleas are a significant threat to public health because of their epidemic and zoonotic potential. The geographical distribution of mosquito-borne diseases such as West Nile (WN), Rift Valley fever (RVF), Dengue, Chikungunya, and Zika has expanded over the last decades. Countries of the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions are not spared. Outbreaks of WN are repeatedly reported in the Mediterranean basin. Human cases of RVF were reported at the southern borders of the Maghreb region. For this reason, establishing the basis for the research to understand the potential for the future emergence of these and other arboviruses and their expansion into new geographic areas became a public health priority. In this context, the European network “MediLabSecure” gathering laboratories in 19 non-EU countries from the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions seeks to improve the surveillance (of animals, humans, and vectors) by reinforcing capacity building and harmonizing national surveillance systems to address this important human and veterinary health issue. The aim of this review is to give an exhaustive overview of arboviruses and their vectors in the region.Recent FindingsThe data presented underline the importance of surveillance in the implementation of more adapted control strategies to combat vector-borne diseases. Partner laboratories within the MediLabSecure network present a wide range of infrastructures and have benefited from different training programs.SummaryAlthough reporting of arboviral presence is not carried out in a systematic manner, the expansion of the area where arboviruses are present cannot be disputed. This reinforces the need for increasing surveillance capacity building in this region to prevent future emergences.

BackgroundControl of the mosquito vector Culex pipiens with insecticides is the main way to control arboviruses that the species can transmit such as West Nile virus (WNV) and Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV). However, its efficiency has been hampered by the emergence of insecticide resistance. Little is known about the insecticide-resistance status and underlying resistance mechanisms of field-collected populations of Cx. pipiens in Morocco.MethodsMosquito adults from Mohammadia city in Morocco were reared from immature stages. The level of their susceptibility to insecticides was assessed using standard WHO bioassay. The two forms of the Cx. pipiens complex and their hybrids were identified by a multiplex PCR. Identified mosquitoes were then tested for the presence of the G119S ace-1 and L1014F kdr mutations using PCR-RFLP and PCR assays, respectively.ResultsWHO bioassays indicated that Cx. pipiens was resistant to all tested insecticides: lambda-cyhalothrin (49% mortality), permethrin (63% mortality), DDT (16% mortality), malation (52% mortality) and bendiocarb (39% mortality). The frequency of the 119S allele was almost identical in the pipiens form and hybrids (0.11 and 0.15, respectively) whereas it remained low in the molestus form (0.03). No significant correlation was observed between the G119S allele and the resistance phenotype to two tested insecticides (malathion and bendiocarb). The frequency of the L1014F allele was identical in the pipiens form and hybrids (0.44) whereas it was low in the molestus form (0.36) but no significant difference was detected (χ2 = 1.46, df = 1, P = 0.225). The presence of the L1014F kdr mutation was significantly associated with resistance to three tested insecticides in pipiens form (P = 0.0019, P = 0.0023 and P = 0.023, respectively, to lambda-cyhalothrin, permethrin and DDT) whereas no significant correlation was observed between the L1014F kdr mutation and resistance phenotype in molestus form and hybrids to the three tested insecticides.ConclusionThese findings showed that wild populations of Cx. pipiens have developed resistance against the main insecticide families with different modes of action: organochlorines (DDT), organophosphates (malathion), carbamates (bendiocarb), pyrethroids (lambda-cyhalothrin, permethrin). Therefore, urgent action should be taken to manage the resistance in this species to maintain the effectiveness of arbovirus control.

Background The Mediterranean Basin is historically a hotspot for trade, transport, and migration. As a result, countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea share common public health threats. Among them are vector-borne diseases, and in particular, mosquito-borne viral diseases are prime candidates as (re)emerging diseases and are likely to spread across the area. Improving preparedness and response capacities to these threats at the regional level is therefore a major issue. The implementation of entomological surveillance is, in particular, of utmost importance. Guidance in designing entomological surveillance systems is critical, and these systems may pursue different specific objectives depending on the disease. The purpose of the proposed review is to draw up guidelines for designing effective and sustainable entomological surveillance systems in order to improve preparedness and response. However, we make it clear that there is no universal surveillance system, so the thinking behind harmonisation is to define evidence-based standards in order to promote best practises, identify the most appropriate surveillance activities, and optimise the use of resources. Such guidance is aimed at policymakers and diverse stakeholders and is intended to be used as a framework for the implementation of entomological surveillance programmes. It will also be useful to collaborate and share information with health professionals involved in other areas of disease surveillance. Medical entomologists and vector control professionals will be able to refer to this report to advocate for tailored entomological surveillance strategies. The main threats targeted in this review are the vectors of dengue virus, chikungunya virus, Zika virus, West Nile virus, and Rift Valley fever virus. The vectors of all these arboviruses are mosquitoes. Methods Current knowledge on vector surveillance in the Mediterranean area is reviewed. The analysis was carried out by a collaboration of the medical entomology experts in the region, all of whom belong to the MediLabSecure network, which is currently funded by the European Union and represents an international effort encompassing 19 countries in the Mediterranean and Black Sea region. Findings Robust surveillance systems are required to address the globalisation of emerging arboviruses. The prevention and management of mosquito-borne viral diseases must be addressed in the prism of a One Health strategy that includes entomological surveillance as an integral part of the policy. Entomological surveillance systems should be designed according to the entomological and epidemiological context and must have well-defined objectives in order to effect a tailored and graduated response. We therefore rely on different scenarios according to different entomological and epidemiological contexts and set out detailed objectives of surveillance. The development of multidisciplinary netw...

Cutaneous and visceral leishmaniases are endemic in Morocco. eir geographical distribution is well known. It has been related to bioclimatic factors. However, in 2008, two new cutaneous leishmaniasis foci appeared out of the known risk areas. Hence, we have undertaken this entomological survey in �ve foci situated in different bioclimatic areas to better understand the distribution and the epidemiology of this disease. Results of this study, undertaken during 2011, showed the predominance of Phlebotomus sergenti (55.8%) followed by Ph. perniciosus (12.9%), Ph. longicuspis (12.3%), and Ph. papatasi (12.0%). Ph. sergenti was active during 6 months in subhumid area and 8 months in arid, semiarid, and Saharan areas. Compared to previous studies, our results show a rise in Ph. sergenti abundance and an extension of its activity period. ese results could explain the increase in anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis incidence in Morocco and its extension to new nonendemic regions. Ph. perniciosus and Ph. longicuspis have also displayed a large distribution and a long activity period indicating a high potential risk of Leishmania infantum transmission in the studied areas.

In 2015, the mosquito Aedes albopictus was detected in Rabat, Morocco. This invasive species can be involved in the transmission of more than 25 arboviruses. It is known that each combination of mosquito population and virus genotype leads to a specific interaction that can shape the outcome of infection. Testing the vector competence of local mosquitoes is therefore a prerequisite to assess the risks of emergence. A field-collected strain of Ae . albopictus from Morocco was experimentally infected with dengue (DENV), chikungunya (CHIKV), zika (ZIKV) and yellow fever (YFV) viruses. We found that this species can highly transmit CHIKV and to a lesser extent, DENV, ZIKV and YFV. Viruses can be detected in mosquito saliva at day 3 (CHIKV), day 14 (DENV and YFV), and day 21 (ZIKV) post-infection. These results suggest that the local transmission of these four arboviruses by Ae . albopictus newly introduced in Morocco is a likely scenario. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov APAFIS#6573-201606l412077987v2 .