The hypoxic environment of tumors dictates the phenotype of local myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) via HIF-1a expression; hypoxia converts splenic MDSCs from specific into nonspecific suppressors.

Accumulation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) associated with inhibition of dendritic cell (DC) differentiation is one of the major immunological abnormalities in cancer and leads to suppression of antitumor immune responses. The molecular mechanism of this phenomenon remains unclear. We report here that STAT3-inducible up-regulation of the myeloid-related protein S100A9 enhances MDSC production in cancer. Mice lacking this protein mounted potent antitumor immune responses and rejected implanted tumors. This effect was reversed by administration of wild-type MDSCs from tumor-bearing mice to S100A9-null mice. Overexpression of S100A9 in cultured embryonic stem cells or transgenic mice inhibited the differentiation of DCs and macrophages and induced accumulation of MDSCs. This study demonstrates that tumor-induced up-regulation of S100A9 protein is critically important for accumulation of MDSCs and reveals a novel molecular mechanism of immunological abnormalities in cancer.

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) are a major component of the immune suppressive network described in cancer and many other pathological conditions. Recent studies have demonstrated that one of the major mechanisms of MDSC-induced immune suppression is mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, the mechanism of this phenomenon remained unknown. In this study, we observed a substantial up-regulation of ROS by MDSC in all of seven different tumor models and in patients with head and neck cancer. The increased ROS production by MDSC is mediated by up-regulated activity of NADPH oxidase (NOX2). MDSC from tumor-bearing mice had significantly higher expression of NOX2 subunits, primarily p47phox and gp91phox, compared with immature myeloid cells from tumor-free mice. Expression of NOX2 subunits in MDSC was controlled by the STAT3 transcription factor. In the absence of NOX2 activity, MDSC lost the ability to suppress T cell responses and quickly differentiated into mature macrophages and dendritic cells. These findings expand our fundamental understanding of the biology of MDSC and may also open new opportunities for therapeutic regulation of these cells in cancer.

The nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) is the master regulator of adipogenesis and the pharmacological target of the thiazolidinedione (TZD) class of insulin sensitizers. Activation of PPARγ by TZDs promotes adipogenesis at the expense of osteoblast formation, contributing to their associated adverse effects on bone. Recently we reported the development of PPARγ antagonist SR1664, designed to block the obesity induced phosphorylation of serine 273 (S273) in the absence of classical agonism, to derive insulin sensitizing efficacy with improved therapeutic index. Here we identify the structural mechanism by which SR1664 actively antagonizes PPARγ, and extend these findings to develop the inverse agonist SR2595. Treatment of isolated bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) with SR2595 promotes induction of osteogenic differentiation. Together these results identify the structural determinants of ligand mediated PPARγ repression, and suggest a therapeutic approach to promote bone formation.

Colony-stimulating factor 1 (CSF1) and interleukin 34 (IL34) signal via the CSF1 receptor to regulate macrophage differentiation. Studies in IL34- or CSF1-deficient mice have revealed that IL34 function is limited to the central nervous system and skin during development. However, the roles of IL34 and CSF1 at homeostasis or in the context of inflammatory diseases or cancer in wild-type mice have not been clarified in vivo. By neutralizing CSF1 and/or IL34 in adult mice, we identified that they play important roles in macrophage differentiation, specifically in steady-state microglia, Langerhans cells, and kidney macrophages. In several inflammatory models, neutralization of both CSF1 and IL34 contributed to maximal disease protection. However, in a myeloid cell-rich tumor model, CSF1 but not IL34 was required for tumor-associated macrophage accumulation and immune homeostasis. Analysis of human inflammatory conditions reveals IL34 upregulation that may account for the protection requirement of IL34 blockade. Furthermore, evaluation of IL34 and CSF1 blockade treatment during Listeria infection reveals no substantial safety concerns. Thus, IL34 and CSF1 play non-redundant roles in macrophage differentiation, and therapeutic intervention targeting IL34 and/or CSF1 may provide an effective treatment in macrophage-driven immune-pathologies.

Notch is a major factor mediating interaction between hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) and bone marrow stroma (BMS). However its contribution to dendritic cell (DC) differentiation is controversial. We found that main Notch ligands Delta-1 and Jagged-1 had the opposite effect on DC differentiation. Delta-1 promoted generation of fully differentiated DCs, whereas Jagged-1 stimulated accumulation of DC precursors but prevented their transition to terminally differentiated DCs. BMS expressed a substantially higher level of Jagged-1 than Delta-1. Just the opposite expression pattern was observed in spleen stroma (SS). The BMS effect on DC differentiation was similar to that of Jagged-1, whereas the effect of SS was similar to the effect of Delta-1. Downregulation of Jagged-1 in BMS substantially increased DC differentiation. Experiments in vivo with adoptive transfer of DC precursors further supported the different roles of BMS and SS in DC development. Jagged-1 and Delta-1 equally activated CBF-1/RBPJ transcription factor, which is a major Notch target. However, they produced a different pattern of activation of Notch target gene Hes1. Overexpression of Hes1 resulted in increased DC differentiation from HPCs. Thus, this study not only revealed the different role of Notch ligands in DC differentiation but also may provide a new insight into regulation of DC differentiation by BMS. IntroductionIt is widely accepted that differentiation of dendritic cells (DCs) critically depends on bone marrow microenvironment, which consists of 2 major components: a complex network of cytokines and direct physical interaction between hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) and hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) with bone marrow stroma (BMS). Currently, the number of cytokines involved in DC differentiation has been identified. [1][2][3][4] However, surprisingly little is known about the direct effect of bone marrow microenvironment on DC differentiation and especially the role of direct cell-cell contact between HPCs and BMS. One of the major factors that mediates interaction between BMS and HPCs is the Notch family of receptors/ transcriptional regulators. Notch signals influence multiple processes that govern lineage specification among progenitor cells, programmed cell death, and cellular proliferation. At present, 2 Notch ligand families, Delta and Jagged, have been described. 5 HPCs express primarily Notch-1 and Notch-2 receptors. Each member is a large single heterodimeric receptor composed of noncovalently associated extracellular, transmembrane, and intracellular subunits (ICNs). Notch signaling is initiated by the binding of the extracellular domain of Notch to a Notch ligand. After ligand binding to Notch receptor, ICN is cleaved and translocates to the nucleus. 6 All mammalian Notches seem to use the same basic signaling pathway via CBF-1/RBP-J transcription factors. 7,8 This results in the activation of transcription of target genes including bHLH transcription factors HES, STAT3, 9-11 as well as p21 Cip/Waf , cyclin D1...

Nuclear receptors (NRs) play central roles in metabolic syndrome, making them attractive drug targets despite the challenge of achieving functional selectivity. For instance, members of the thiazolidinedione class of insulin sensitizers offer robust efficacy but have been limited due to adverse effects linked to activation of genes not involved in insulin sensitization. Studies reviewed here provide strategies for targeting subsets of PPARγ target genes, enabling development of next-generation modulators with improved therapeutic index. Additionally, emerging evidence suggests that targeting the NRs ROR and Rev-erb holds promise for treating metabolic syndrome based on their involvement in circadian rhythm and metabolism.

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