Background Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and tuberculosis (TB) are among the leading causes of death among women of reproductive age worldwide. TB is a significant cause of maternal morbidity. Detection of TB during pregnancy could provide substantial benefits to women and their offspring. Methods This was a cross-sectional implementation research study of integrating active TB case-finding with delivery of antenatal and prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) services in six clinics in Soweto, South Africa. All pregnant women ≥18 years of age presenting for routine care to these public clinics were screened for symptoms of active TB, cough ≥2 weeks, sputum production, fevers, night sweats or weight loss, regardless of their HIV status. Participants with any symptom of active TB were asked to provide a sputum specimen for smear microscopy, mycobacterial culture and drug-susceptibility testing. Results Between December 2008 and July 2009, 3,963 pregnant women were enrolled and screened for TB, of whom 1,454 (36.7%) were HIV-seropositive. Any symptom of TB was reported by 23.1% of HIV-seropositive and 13.8% of HIV-seronegative women (p<0.01). Active pulmonary TB was diagnosed in 10/1,454 HIV-seropositve women (688 per 100,000) and 5/2,483 HIV-seronegative women (201 per 100,000, p = 0.03). The median CD4+ T-cell count among HIV-seropositive women with TB was similar to that of HIV-seropositive women without TB (352 versus 333 cells/μL, p=0.85). Conclusions There is a high burden of active TB among HIV-seropositive pregnant women. TB screening and provision of isoniazid preventive therapy and antiretroviral therapy should be integrated with PMTCT services.

Background. Tuberculosis (TB) remains a global public health problem with known gender-related disparities. We reviewed the quantitative evidence for gender-related differences in accessing TB services from symptom onset to treatment initiation. Methods. Following a systematic review process, we: searched 12 electronic databases; included quantitative studies assessing gender differences in accessing TB diagnostic and treatment services; abstracted data; and assessed study validity. We defined barriers and delays at the individual and provider/system levels using a conceptual framework of the TB care continuum and examined gender-related differences. Results. Among 13,448 articles, 137 were included: many assessed individual-level barriers (52%) and delays (42%), 76% surveyed persons presenting for care with diagnosed or suspected TB, 24% surveyed community members, and two-thirds were from African and Asian regions. Many studies reported no gender differences. Among studies reporting disparities, women faced greater barriers (financial: 64% versus 36%; physical: 100% versus 0%; stigma: 85% versus 15%; health literacy: 67% versus 33%; and provider-/system-level: 100% versus 0%) and longer delays (presentation to diagnosis: 45% versus 0%) than men. Conclusions. Many studies found no quantitative gender-related differences in barriers and delays limiting access to TB services. When differences were identified, women experienced greater barriers and longer delays than men.

As the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2 demonstrates, COVID-19 is here to stay. In January 2021, President Biden issued the "National Strategy for the COVID-19 Response and Pandemic Preparedness." As the US moves from crisis to control, this national strategy needs to be updated. Policy makers need to specify the goals and strategies for the "new normal" of life with COVID-19 and communicate them clearly to the public.SARS-CoV-2 continues to persist, evolve, and surprise. In July 2021, with vaccinations apace and infection rates plummeting, Biden proclaimed that "we've gained the upper hand against this virus," and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) relaxed its guidance for mask wearing and socializing. 1 By September 2021, the Delta variant proved these steps to be premature, and by late November, the Omicron variant created concern about a perpetual state of emergency.In delineating a national strategy, humility is essential. The precise duration of immunity to SARS-CoV-2 from vaccination or prior infection is unknown. Also unknown is whether SARS-CoV-2 will become a seasonal infection; whether antiviral therapies will prevent long COVID; or whether even more transmissible, immuneevading, or virulent variants will arise after Omicron.Another part of this humility is recognizing that predictions are necessary but educated guesses, not mathematical certainty. The virus, host response, and data will evolve. Biomedical and public health tools will expand, along with better understanding of their limitations. The

Background. Tuberculosis (TB) remains a significant global public health problem with known gender-related (male versus female) disparities. We reviewed the qualitative evidence (written/spoken narrative) for gender-related differences limiting TB service access from symptom onset to treatment initiation. Methods. Following a systematic process, we searched 12 electronic databases, included qualitative studies that assessed gender differences in accessing TB diagnostic and treatment services, abstracted data, and assessed study validity. Using a modified “inductive coding” system, we synthesized emergent themes within defined barriers and delays limiting access at the individual and provider/system levels and examined gender-related differences. Results. Among 13,448 studies, 28 studies were included. All were conducted in developing countries and assessed individual-level barriers; 11 (39%) assessed provider/system-level barriers, 18 (64%) surveyed persons with suspected or diagnosed TB, and 7 (25%) exclusively surveyed randomly sampled community members or health care workers. Each barrier affected both genders but had gender-variable nature and impact reflecting sociodemographic themes. Women experienced financial and physical dependence, lower general literacy, and household stigma, whereas men faced work-related financial and physical barriers and community-based stigma. Conclusions. In developing countries, barriers limiting access to TB care have context-specific gender-related differences that can inform integrated interventions to optimize TB services.

An approach aimed at reducing testing of children at low risk for latent tuberculosis infection did not decrease testing of younger children. More important, older children who were more likely to be born in countries of high tuberculosis incidence were not tested. Additional efforts are needed to increase awareness among medical and school personnel to decrease testing among children who do not have risk factors for latent tuberculosis infection and to increase tuberculin testing of children who are entering school for the first time at the secondary level and do have risk factors for tuberculosis infection.

La nécessité d’une intégration des systèmes des soins de santé primaire pour les femmes offrant des services pour les maladies infectieuses et non transmissibles courantes dans les cadres à ressources limitées, est discutée.

Objective To assess the diagnostic accuracy of the urine lipoarabinomannan (LAM) test among ambulatory HIV-infected persons. Design Cross-sectional Methods HIV-infected persons consecutively presenting to the HIV Clinic at Tembisa Main Clinic in Ekhuruleni, South Africa were screened for symptoms of tuberculosis (TB), and asked to provide sputum and blood samples for smears for acid-fast bacilli (AFB) and mycobacterial culture, and a urine specimen for a LAM enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Fine needle aspirates were obtained from participants with enlarged lymph nodes, and sent for histopathology. Non-pregnant participants underwent chest x-ray. Results 422 HIV-infected participants were enrolled with median age 37 years [interquartile range (IQR) 31-44 years], median CD4+ T-cell count 215 cells/μL (IQR 107-347 cells/μL), and 212 (50%) receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART). 30 (7%) had active TB: 18 with only pulmonary TB (PTB), 5 with only extrapulmonary TB (ETB), and 7 with both PTB and ETB. 27% (95% CI 12-48%) of TB cases were sputum AFB-positive. The sensitivity and specificity of the urine LAM compared to the gold standard of positive bacteriology or histopathology were 32% (95% confidence interval [CI] 16-52%) and 98% (95% CI 96-99%) respectively. Urine LAM had higher sensitivity in TB cases with higher bacillary burdens, though these differences were not statistically significant. Conclusions The sensitivity of urine LAM testing is inadequate to replace mycobacterial culture. In contrast to prior research on the urine LAM, this study was conducted among less sick, ambulatory HIV-infected patients presenting for routine care.

Undiagnosed TB among HIV-infected ambulatory patients was associated with low CD4+ T-cell counts regardless of ART status. TB screening algorithms which include CD4+ T-cell count and hemoglobin testing may be an effective way to identify HIV-infected clinic attendees at highest risk of undiagnosed TB. Isoniazid preventive therapy and TB infection control are essential for reducing occurrence of HIV-associated TB even after ART initiation.