Several studies have stressed the importance of the microbiota in the maintenance of the gastrointestinal epithelium. Administration of probiotic bacteria, supplements composed of microbiota constituents, was previously shown to diminish symptoms in patients suffering from inflammatory bowel diseases. This raises the possibility that probiotics may play an active role in enhancing the intestinal barrier at the mucosal surface. In this study, we investigated whether the clinically tested VSL#3 probiotic formula and/or its secreted components can augment the protective mucus layer in vivo and in vitro. For in vivo studies, Wistar rats were orally administered the probiotic mixture VSL#3 on a daily basis for seven days. After treatment, basal luminal mucin content increased by 60%. In addition, we exposed isolated rat colonic loops to the VSL#3 probiotic formula, which significantly stimulated colonic mucin (MUC) secretion and MUC2 gene expression; however, MUC1 and MUC3 gene expression were only slightly elevated. The effect of the VSL#3 mucin secretagogue was also tested in vitro by use of LS 174T colonic epithelial cells. In contrast to the animal studies, cultured cells incubated with VSL#3 bacteria did not exhibit increased mucin secretion. However, the bacterial secreted products contained in the conditioned media stimulated a remarkable mucin secretion effect. Among the three bacterial groups (Lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria, and Streptococci) contained in VSL#3, the Lactobacillus species were the strongest potentiator of mucin secretion in vitro. A preliminary characterization of the putative mucin secretagogue suggested that it was a heat-resistant soluble compound, which is not sensitive to protease and DNase treatment. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the complex and beneficial interaction between colonic epithelial cells and intestinal bacteria.

Objective Although immune responses drive the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, mechanisms that control antigen-presenting cell (APC)-mediated immune activation in atherosclerosis remain elusive. We here investigated the function of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α in antigen presenting cells in atherosclerosis. Approach and Results We found upregulated HIF1α expression in CD11c+ APCs within atherosclerotic plaques of low-density lipoprotein receptor-deficient (Ldlr−/−) mice. Conditional deletion of Hif1a in CD11c+ APCs in high fat diet-fed Ldlr−/− mice accelerated atherosclerotic plaque formation and increased lesional T cell infiltrates, revealing a protective role of this transcription factor. HIF1α directly controls Stat3 transcription, and a reduced STAT3 expression was found in HIF1α-deficient APCs and aortic tissue, together with an upregulated IL-12 expression and expansion of Th1 cells. Overexpression of STAT3 in Hif1a-deficient APCs in bone marrow reversed enhanced atherosclerotic lesion formation and reduced Th1 cell-expansion in chimeric Ldlr−/− mice. Notably, deletion of Hif1a in LysM+ bone marrow cells in Ldlr−/− mice did not affect lesion formation or T cell activation. In human atherosclerotic lesions, HIF1α, STAT3 and IL-12 protein were found to co-localize with APCs. Conclusions Our findings identify HIF1α to antagonize APC-activation and Th1-polarization during atherogenesis in Ldlr−/− mice, and to attenuate the progression of atherosclerosis. These data substantiate the critical role of APCs in controlling immune mechanisms that drive atherosclerotic lesion development.

Background:The membrane protein EspD is critical for pathogenic E. coli to inject virulence factors into host mammalian cells. Results: EspD inserts into membranes and forms an ϳ2.5-nm pore. Conclusion: Pore assembly is dependent on anionic phospholipids and acidic pH. Significance: Elucidating the structural mechanisms of pore formation advances understanding of the T3SS function in EPEC and EHEC infections.

Enterohemorrhagic E. coli is a causative agent of gastrointestinal and diarrheal diseases. These pathogenic E. coli express a syringe like protein machine, known as the type III secretion system (T3SS), used for the injection of virulence factors into the cytosol of the host epithelial cell. Breaching the epithelial plasma membrane requires formation of a translocation pore that contains the secreted protein EspD. Here we demonstrate that the N-terminal segment of EspD, encompassing residues 1–171, contains two amphipathic domains spanning residues 24–41 and 66–83, with the latter of these helices being critical for EspD function. Fluorescence and circular dichroism analysis revealed that, in solution, His6-EspD1-171 adopts a native disordered structure; however, on binding anionic small unilamellar vesicles composed of phosphatidylserine, His6-EspD1-171 undergoes a pH depended conformational change that increases the α-helix content of this protein ~7-fold. This change coincides with insertion of the region circumscribing Trp47 into the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer. On the HeLa cell plasma membrane, His6-EspD1-171 forms a homodimer that is postulated to promote EspD-EspD oligomerization and pore formation. Complementation of ΔespD null mutant bacteria with an espDΔ66-83 gene showed that this protein was secreted but non-functional.

RGS1 (regulator of G-protein signaling 1) has been associated with multiple autoimmune disorders including type 1 diabetes. RGS1 desensitizes the chemokine receptors CCR7 and CXCR4 that are critical to the localization of T and B cells in lymphoid organs. To explore how RGS1 variation contributes to autoimmunity, we generated Rgs1 knockdown (KD) mice in the nonobese diabetic (NOD) model for type 1 diabetes. We found that Rgs1 KD increased the size of germinal centers, but decreased the frequency of T follicular helper (TFH) cells. We show that loss of Rgs1 in T cells had both a T cell-intrinsic effect on migration and TFH cell frequency, and an indirect effect on B cell migration and germinal center formation. Notably, several recent publications described an increase in circulating TFH cells in patients with type 1 diabetes, suggesting this cell population is involved in pathogenesis. Though Rgs1 KD was insufficient to alter diabetes frequency in the NOD model, our findings raise the possibility that RGS1 plays a role in autoimmunity owing to its function in TFH cells. This mechanistic link, while speculative at this time, would lend support to the notion that TFH cells are key participants in autoimmunity and could explain RGS1’s association with several immune-mediated diseases.

Background Patient-derived organoid (PDO) models offer potential to transform drug discovery for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) but are limited by inconsistencies with differentiation and functional characterization. We profiled molecular and cellular features across a range of intestinal organoid models and examined differentiation and establishment of a functional epithelial barrier. Methods Patient-derived organoids or monolayers were generated from control or IBD patient–derived colon or ileum and were molecularly or functionally profiled. Biological or technical replicates were examined for transcriptional responses under conditions of expansion or differentiation. Cell-type composition was determined by deconvolution of cell-associated gene signatures and histological features. Differentiated control or IBD-derived monolayers were examined for establishment of transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), loss of barrier integrity in response to a cocktail of interferon (IFN)-γ and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and prevention of cytokine-induced barrier disruption by the JAK inhibitor, tofacitinib. Results In response to differentiation media, intestinal organoids and monolayers displayed gene expression patterns consistent with maturation of epithelial cell types found in the human gut. Upon differentiation, both colon- and ileum-derived monolayers formed functional barriers, with sustained TEER. Barrier integrity was compromised by inflammatory cytokines IFN-γ and TNF-α, and damage was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by tofacitinib. Conclusions We describe the generation and characterization of human colonic or ileal organoid models capable of functional differentiation to mature epithelial cell types. In monolayer culture, these cells formed a robust epithelial barrier with sustained TEER and responses to pharmacological modulation. Our findings demonstrate that control and IBD patient-derived organoids possess consistent transcriptional and functional profiles that can enable development of epithelial-targeted therapies.

Background:The protein kinase p38␣ mediates cellular responses to stress and immune signals. Results: Loss of p38␣ in epithelial cells results in aberrant activation of multiple protein kinases and disrupts tissue homeostasis. Conclusion: Epithelial tissue homeostasis requires cross-regulatory interactions between p38␣ and other protein kinases. Significance: These findings provide clues about how to prevent the adverse effects of p38 inhibitors.

The protein kinase p38α mediates cellular responses to environmental and endogenous cues that direct tissue homeostasis and immune responses. Studies of mice lacking p38α in several different cell types have demonstrated that p38α signaling is essential to maintaining the proliferation-differentiation balance in developing and steady-state tissues. The mechanisms underlying these roles involve cell-autonomous control of signaling and gene expression by p38α. Here we show that p38α regulates gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) formation in a non-cell-autonomous manner. From an investigation of mice with intestinal epithelial cell-specific deletion of the p38α gene, we find that p38α serves to limit NF-κB signaling and thereby attenuate GALT-promoting chemokine expression in the intestinal epithelium. Loss of this regulation results in GALT hyperplasia and, in some animals, mucosa-associated B cell lymphoma. These anomalies occur independently of luminal microbial stimuli and are likely driven by direct epithelial-lymphoid interactions. Our study illustrates a novel p38α-dependent mechanism preventing excessive generation of epithelial-derived signals that drive lymphoid tissue overgrowth and malignancy.