Thirty-four matched pairs of sixth-and seventh-grade students were selected from 358 participants in a comparison of an explicit concreteto-representational-to-abstract (CRA) sequence of instruction with traditional instruction for teaching algebraic transformation equations. Each pair of students had been previously labeled with a specific learning disability or as at risk for difficulties in algebra. Students were matched according to achievement score, age, pretest score, and class performance. The same math teacher taught both members of each matched pair, but in different classes. All students were taught in inclusive settings under the instruction of a middle school mathematics teacher. Results indicated that students who learned how to solve algebra transformation equations through CRA outperformed peers receiving traditional instruction on both postinstruction and follow-up tests. Additionally, error pattern analysis indicated that students who used the CRA sequence of instruction performed fewer procedural errors when solving for variables.Abstract thinking requires a person to work with information that is not readily represented at the concrete or pictorial level (Hawker & Cowley, 1997). To work with abstract information is to understand theoretical properties and think beyond what a person can touch or see. On a practical level, an ability to work with abstract concepts allows one to work with predictions of what may happen and expectations about what is happening elsewhere. Abstract knowledge may also be considered a conscious awareness that a symbol stands for some Requests for reprints should be sent to Bradley S. Witzel, Ph.D., Winthrop University, Richard Riley College of Education, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Rock Hill, SC 29733. Electronic inquiries may be sent to witzelb@winthrop.edu.

Students with learning problems (i.e., students with learning disabilities or emotional disabilities and those considered at-risk for school failure) are not making acceptable math progress in the nation's schools. Fortunately, instructional practices exist that help these students achieve in math. Ten instructional components that have research support for promoting math achievement are presented. A math curriculum, the Strategic Math Series, which incorporates the research-based teaching practices, is described. Next, the results from field-testing the Strategic Math Series with 22 teachers are presented. The field-test results indicate that 109 students with learning problems were able to (a) acquire computational skills across facts, (b) solve word problems with and without extraneous information, (c) create word problems involving facts, (d) apply a mnemonic strategy to difficult problems, (e) increase their rate of computation, and (f) generalize math skills across examiners, settings, and tasks. Finally, issues in math instruction are discussed, and the need to include best practices within instructional materials is highlighted.

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Research suggests that students with learning disabilities have significant difficulty acquiring and retaining math skills. A variety of factors seem to be contributing to the poor math performance of these individuals. The purpose of this article is to discuss these factors and make recommendations that will enhance the likelihood of better math performance. The article begins with a discussion of national reform movements that have influenced math instruction (i.e., National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Standards, minimum competency testing, graduation requirements, inclusion). Next, learner characteristics are reviewed, then issues related to math instruction are described. Finally, ways to improve current practices in math education are discussed.