No abstract

A randomized controlled trial tested whether mindfulness training would increase lab-based and in vivo spontaneous helping behaviors toward racial outgroup members. First, across conditions, those scoring higher in baseline trait mindfulness showed higher levels of preintervention lab-based and ecological momentary assessment (EMA)-based helping behavior. Next, short-term (4-day) training in mindfulness, relative to a well-matched sham meditation training, increased interracial helping behavior in a lab-based simulation. Finally, among people scoring lower in a basic form of trait mindfulness at baseline—that is, with greater room for improvement—mindfulness training predicted higher postintervention in vivo helping behavior reported via EMA. However, neither training condition alone attenuated preferential helping toward racial ingroup members. These findings indicate, for the first time, that mindfulness and its training fosters helping behavior toward strangers and acquaintances regardless of their racial ingroup or outgroup status, but preferential helping of racial ingroup members remains.

Two studies examined how envy influences prosocial and antisocial behavior. In Experiment 1, participants in an envious state (relative to a neutral state) were less helpful: They picked up fewer dropped pencils in their immediate vicinity. We expanded upon these findings by examining how envy affected both helping and harming behavior in a competitive scenario. In Experiment 2, individuals in envious or neutral states assigned puzzle tasks to another student in a prisoner’s dilemma style scenario. Prosocial and antisocial behaviors were assessed via the difficulty of the assigned puzzles (easy puzzles were considered helpful and difficult puzzles were harmful). We hypothesized that experiencing envy would result in greater motive to harm as well as greater likelihood of engaging in harmful behavior. The hypothesis was supported, suggesting that envy has detrimental ramifications that go beyond the individual and extend to interpersonal relationships.

Cigars are available in a variety of flavors that may impact uptake and use, but little is known about how different flavors affect abuse liability. This study used 3 behavioral economic tasks to examine abuse liability of Black & Mild cigars differing in flavor among young adult cigarette smokers. Participants were 25 cigar-naïve young adults (aged 18–25 years) who smoked ≥5 cigarettes/day. In 5 Latin square-ordered laboratory visits, participants completed 3 abuse liability tasks (drug purchase task, cross-price purchase task, and multiple-choice procedure) for each of 4 cigar flavors (original, cream, wine, or apple) and own-brand cigarettes. In the drug purchase task, relative to own-brand cigarettes, all cigar flavors were associated with lower abuse liability using most measures (intensity, breakpoint, maximum total tobacco expenditure for 1 day [ps < .05]), although only wine-flavored cigars scored significantly lower using 1 measure (price at maximum total tobacco expenditure for 1 day). When cigars and cigarettes were available concurrently in the cross-price purchase task, all cigar flavors functioned as substitutes for cigarettes. Using the multiple-choice procedure, crossover points for wine- (mean = $0.61) and apple-flavored cigars (mean = $0.71) were significantly lower than own-brand cigarettes (mean = $0.86) and original-flavored cigars (mean = $1.00); no significant differences existed between own-brand cigarettes and original-flavored cigars. Thus, whereas abuse liability may be highest for participants’ own-brand cigarette, young adult smokers may be willing to use flavored cigars. Furthermore, abuse liability varies by cigar flavor, with original- and cream-flavored cigars appearing to have the highest abuse liability. Characterizing flavors and flavor additives in cigars represent an important tobacco regulatory target.

IntroductionIn the USA, Food and Drug Administration regulations prohibit the sale of flavoured cigarettes, with menthol being the exception. However, the manufacture, advertisement and sale of flavoured cigar products are permitted. Such flavourings influence positive perceptions of tobacco products and are linked to increased use. Flavourings may mask the taste of tobacco and enhance smoke inhalation, influencing toxicant exposure and abuse liability among novice tobacco users. Using clinical laboratory methods, this study investigates how flavour availability affects measures of abuse liability in young adult cigarette smokers. The specific aims are to evaluate the effect of cigar flavours on nicotine exposure, and behavioural and subjective measures of abuse liability.Methods and analysesParticipants (projected n=25) are healthy smokers of five or more cigarettes per day over the past 3 months, 18–25 years old, naive to cigar use (lifetime use of 50 or fewer cigar products and no more than 10 cigars smoked in the past 30 days) and without a desire to quit cigarette smoking in the next 30 days. Participants complete five laboratory sessions in a Latin square design with either their own brand cigarette or a session-specific Black & Mild cigar differing in flavour (apple, cream, original and wine). Participants are single-blinded to cigar flavours. Each session consists of two 10-puff smoking bouts (30 s interpuff interval) separated by 1 hour. Primary outcomes include saliva nicotine concentration, behavioural economic task performance and response to various questionnaire items assessing subjective effects predictive of abuse liability. Differences in outcomes across own brand cigarette and flavoured cigar conditions will be tested using linear mixed models.Ethics and disseminationThe Virginia Commonwealth University Institutional Review Board approved the study (VCU IRB: HM20007848). Dissemination channels for study findings include scientific journals, scientific meetings, and policy briefs.Trial registration number NCT02937051.