Activation of TLRs by bacterial products results in rapid activation of genes encoding products designed to protect the host from perturbing microbes. In the intestine, which is colonized by a large and diverse population of commensal bacteria, TLR signaling may not function in a simple on/off mode. Here, we show that the flagellin receptor TLR5 has an essential and nonredundant role in protecting the gut from enteric microbes. Mice lacking TLR5 (TLR5KO mice) developed spontaneous colitis, as assessed by well-defined clinical, serologic, and histopathologic indicators of this disorder. Compared with WT littermates, TLR5KO mice that had not yet developed robust colitis exhibited decreased intestinal expression of TLR5-regulated host defense genes despite having an increased bacterial burden in the colon. In contrast, such TLR5KO mice displayed markedly increased colonic expression of hematopoietic-derived proinflammatory cytokines, suggesting that elevated levels of bacterial products may result in activation of other TLRs that drive colitis in TLR5KO mice. In accordance, deletion of TLR4 rescued the colitis of TLR5KO mice in that mice lacking both TLR4 and TLR5 also had elevated bacterial loads in the colon but lacked immunological, histopathological, and clinical evidence of colitis. That an engineered innate immune deficiency ultimately results in spontaneous intestinal inflammation supports the notion that an innate immune deficiency might underlie some instances of inflammatory bowel disease.

Infection by influenza virus leads to respiratory failure characterized by acute lung injury associated with alveolar edema, necrotizing bronchiolitis, and excessive bleeding. Severe reactions to infection that lead to hospitalizations and/or death are frequently attributed to an exuberant host response, with excessive inflammation and damage to the epithelial cells that mediate respiratory gas exchange. The respiratory mucosa serves as a physical and chemical barrier to infection, producing mucus and surfactants, anti-viral mediators, and inflammatory cytokines. The airway epithelial cell layer also serves as the first and overwhelmingly primary target for virus infection and growth. This review details immune events during influenza infection from the viewpoint of the epithelial cells, secretory host defense mechanisms, cell death, and recovery.

Sudden exposure of human populations to chemicals, pathogens, or radiation has the potential to result in substantial morbidity. A potential means of rapidly protecting such populations might be to activate innate host defense pathways, which can provide broad protection against a variety of insults. However, innate immune activators can, by themselves, result in severe inflammatory pathology, which in large part is driven by hemopoietic-derived cytokines such as TNF-α. We reasoned that, because it preferentially activates epithelial cells, the TLR5 agonist flagellin might not induce severe inflammatory pathology and yet be an ideal agent to provide such non-specific protection, particularly at the mucosal surfaces that serve as a front line of host defense. In accordance, we observed that systemic treatment of mice with purified flagellin did not induce the serologic, histopathologic, and clinical hallmarks of inflammation that are induced by LPS but yet protected mice against chemicals, pathogens, and ionizing radiation. Flagellin-elicited radioprotection required TLR5, the TLR signaling adaptor MyD88, and was effective if given between 2 h before to 4 h after exposure to irradiation. Flagellin-elicited radioprotection was, in part, mediated via effects on cells in bone marrow but yet rescued mortality without a pronounced rescue of radiation-induced anemia or leukopenia. Thus, systemic administration of flagellin may be a relatively safe means of providing temporary non-specific protection against a variety of challenges.

Bacterial flagellin, the primary structural component of flagella, is a dominant target of humoral immunity upon infection by enteric pathogens and in Crohn’s disease. To better understand how such responses may be regulated, we sought to define, in mice, basic mechanisms that regulate generation of flagellin-specific Igs. We observed that, in response to i.p. injection with flagellin, generation of flagellin-specific Ig required activation of innate immunity in that these responses were ablated in MyD88-deficient mice and that flagellin from Helicobacter pylori, which is known not to activate TLR5, also did not elicit Abs. Mice lacking αβ T cells (TCRβnull) were completely deficient in their ability to make flagellin Abs in various contexts indicating that, in contrast to common belief, generation of flagellin-specific Ig is absolutely T cell dependent. In contrast to Ab responses to whole flagella (H serotyping), responses to flagellin monomers displayed only moderate serospecificity. Whereas neither oral nor rectal administration of flagellin elicited a strong serum Ab response, induction of colitis with dextran sodium sulfate resulted in a MyD88-dependent serum Ab response to endogenous flagellin, suggesting that, in an inflammatory milieu, TLR signaling promotes acquisition of Abs to intestinal flagellin. Thus, acquisition of a humoral immune response to flagellin requires activation of innate immunity, is T cell dependent, and can originate from flagellin in the intestinal tract in inflammatory conditions in the intestine.

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The ability of TLR agonists to promote adaptive immune responses is attributed to their ability to robustly activate innate immunity. However, it has been observed that, for adjuvants in actual use in research and vaccination, TLR signaling is dispensable for generating humoral immunity. Here, we examined the role of TLR5 and MyD88 in promoting innate and humoral immunity to flagellin using a prime/boost immunization regimen. We observed that eliminating TLR5 greatly reduced flagellin-induced cytokine production, except for IL-18, and ablated DC maturation but did not significantly impact flagellin's ability to promote humoral immunity. Elimination of MyD88, which will ablate signaling through TLR and IL-1b/IL-18 generated by Nod-like receptors, reduced, but did not eliminate flagellin's promotion of humoral immunity. In contrast, loss of the innate immune receptor for profilinlike protein (PLP), TLR11, greatly reduced the ability of PLP to elicit humoral immunity. Together, these results indicate that, firstly, the degree of innate immune activation induced by TLR agonists may be in great excess of that needed to promote humoral immunity and, secondly, there is considerable redundancy in mechanisms that promote the humoral immune response upon innate immune recognition of flagellin. Thus, it should be possible to design innate immune activators that are highly effective vaccine adjuvants yet avoid the adverse events associated with systemic TLR activation.Key words: Adjuvant . Cytokines . DC . Profilin-like protein . TLR Introduction TLR-mediated recognition of structural components of microbial pathogens plays a key role in the initiation of host defense. Specifically, these germ-line-encoded PRR recognize and initiate immune responses to a wide variety of microbial patterns, including those of bacteria, viruses, parasites, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids [1][2][3][4]. TLR agonists are classified into three broad categories such as nucleic acids (TLR 3,7,8,9), lipids/lipopeptides (TLR 4, 1/2, 2/6), and protein (TLR 5,11). Of particular importance to this study, TLR5 recognizes the bacterial protein flagellin [5], in its soluble/monomeric form, whereas TLR11 recognizes profilin-like protein (PLP), made by Toxoplasma gondii [6]. Activation of most TLR, including TLR5 and Eur. J. Immunol. 2009. 39: 359-371 DOI 10.1002 HIGHLIGHTS 359 Frontline TLR11, by their cognate ligands results in rapid nuclear translocation of the transcription factor NF-kB and, consequently, synthesis and secretion of a panel of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Another class of PRR thought to play an important role in innate immunity is the Nod-like receptors (NLR), which are expressed in the cytosol. Of particular relevance to this study, two NLR proteins, Ipaf and Naip5, have been reported to signal in response to flagellin that attains an intracellular location [7][8][9][10]. In contrast to TLR, the primary consequence of Ipaf signaling is not to induce transcription or protein synthesis but rather to activate caspase-1, which resul...

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