Tracheal resection is usually successful and has a low mortality. Anastomotic complications are uncommon, and important risk factors are reoperation, diabetes, lengthy resections, laryngotracheal resections, young age (pediatric patients), and the need for tracheostomy before operation.

Prognostic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

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IMPORTANCE Acute compartment syndrome (ACS) can cause catastrophic tissue damage leading to permanent muscle and nerve loss. Acute compartment syndrome is a clinical diagnosis, with intracompartmental pressure (ICP) used in equivocal cases. There are no reliable diagnostic methods. The clinical evaluation is impossible to standardize, and the threshold for ICP has been known to be unreliable; thus, guidelines for diagnosis can result in overtreatment or delayed diagnosis.OBJECTIVE To present and review the advantages and disadvantages of each diagnostic modality and identify gaps that need to be addressed in the future and to review the most used and appropriate animal and human ACS models. EVIDENCE REVIEWWe included clinical studies and animal models investigating diagnostic modalities for ACS of the extremities. A MEDLINE and Web of Science search was performed. The protocol for the study was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42017079266). We assessed the quality of the clinical studies with Newcastle-Ottawa scale and reported level of evidence for each article.FINDINGS Fifty-one articles were included in this study, reporting on 38 noninvasive and 35 invasive modalities. Near-infrared spectroscopy and direct ICP measurement using a Stryker device were the most common, respectively. Cadaveric studies used saline infusions to create an ACS model. Most studies with human participants included injured patients with acquired ACS or at risk of developing ACS. In healthy human participants, tourniquets formed the most commonly used ACS model. Application of tourniquets and infusion of saline or albumin were the most used ACS models among animal studies. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCEThis article reports on the most common as well as many new and modified diagnostic modalities, which can serve as inspiration for future investigations to develop more effective and efficient diagnostic techniques for ACS. Future studies on diagnostic modalities should include the development of tools for continuous assessment of ICP to better identify the earliest alterations suggestive of impending ACS. With the advent of such technologies, it may be possible to develop far less aggressive and more effective approaches for early detection of ACS.

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BACKGROUND: Studies analyzing sex-related differences in anatomy, biomechanics, and injury patterns have burgeoned in recent years. While the majority of these manuscripts have highlighted differences about the knee, there remains a paucity of descriptions of the sex-related differences about the shoulder. Herein we summarize the sex-related differences of shoulder 1) osteology, 2) soft tissue anatomy, and 3) neuromuscular function. METHODS: A systematic review of literature was performed querying manuscripts from Medline, Web of Science, Embase, and Google Scholar databases according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. All articles investigating shoulder differences by sex were included. Metrics of the sex-related differences in osteology, soft-tissue anatomy, and neuromuscular function were recorded. Meta-analysis was performed when metrics were available from 3 or more studies.  RESULTS:  Sixteen articles were included for analysis. There were 7 cadaveric studies, 1 review article, and 8 studies with Level-III or IV evidence. Glenoid height and width were significantly smaller in females (4.57 mm, p<0.001) compared to males (4.60mm, p=0.001), respectively. There was no significant sex-related difference in glenoid retroversion. Females demonstrated significantly less dynanomotor shoulder strength and greater shoulder range of motion than males. There were no significant sex-related differences in shoulder proprioception and the results for shoulder instability were variable. CONCLUSION: Significant interactions of sex were found in both glenoid and humeral osteology, functional shoulder strength, and range of motion (ROM). Further study is warranted to determine proper conceptualization and treatment of shoulder injuries among sexes.