Rationale Mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake is essential for the bioenergetic feedback response through stimulation of Krebs cycle dehydrogenases. Close association of mitochondria to the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) may explain efficient mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake despite low Ca2+ affinity of the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter. However, the existence of such mitochondrial Ca2+ microdomains and their functional role are presently unresolved. Mitofusin (Mfn) 1 and 2 mediate mitochondrial outer membrane fusion, while Mfn2, but not Mfn1, tethers endoplasmic reticulum to mitochondria in non-cardiac cells. Objective To elucidate roles for Mfn1 and 2 in SR-mitochondrial tethering, Ca2+ signaling and bioenergetic regulation in cardiac myocytes. Methods and Results Fruit fly heart tubes deficient of the Drosophila Mfn ortholog, MARF, had increased contraction-associated and caffeine-sensitive Ca2+ release, suggesting a role for Mfn in SR Ca2+ handling. While cardiac-specific Mfn1 ablation had no effects on murine heart function or Ca2+ cycling, Mfn2 deficiency decreased cardiomyocyte SR-mitochondrial contact length by 30% and reduced the content of SR-associated proteins in mitochondria-associated membranes. This was associated with decreased mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake (despite unchanged mitochondrial membrane potential) but increased steady-state and caffeine-induced SR Ca2+ release. Accordingly, Ca2+-induced stimulation of Krebs cycle dehydrogenases during β-adrenergic stimulation was hampered in Mfn2-, but not Mfn1-KO myocytes, evidenced by oxidation of the redox states of NAD(P)H/NAD(P)+ and FADH2/FAD. Conclusions Physical tethering of SR and mitochondria via Mfn2 is essential for normal inter-organelle Ca2+ signaling in the myocardium, consistent with a requirement for SR-mitochondrial Ca2+ signaling through microdomains in the cardiomyocyte bioenergetic feedback response to physiological stress.

Rationale Mitochondria interact via actions of outer and inner membrane fusion proteins. The role of mitochondrial fusion on functioning of the heart, where mitochondria comprise ~30% of cardiomyocyte volume and their inter-myofilament spatial arrangement with other mitochondria is highly ordered, is unknown. Objective Model and analyze mitochondrial fusion defects in Drosophila melanogaster heart tubes with tincΔ4Gal4-directed expression of RNAi for Mitochondrial Assembly Regulatory Factor (MARF) and Optic atrophy 1 (Opa1). Methods and Results Live imaging analysis revealed that heart tube-specific knockdown of MARF or Opa1 increases mitochondrial morphometric heterogeneity and induces heart tube dilation with profound contractile impairment. Sarcoplasmic reticular structure was unaffected. Cardiomyocyte expression of human mitofusin (mfn) 1 or 2 rescued MARF RNAi cardiomyopathy, demonstrating functional homology between Drosophila MARF and human mitofusins. Suppressing mitochondrial fusion increased compensatory expression of nuclear-encoded mitochondrial genes, indicating mitochondrial biogenesis. The MARF RNAi cardiomyopathy was prevented by transgenic expression of superoxide dismutase 1. Conclusions Mitochondrial fusion is essential to cardiomyocyte mitochondrial function and regeneration. Reactive oxygen species are key mediators of cardiomyopathy in mitochondrial fusion-defective cardiomyocytes. Postulated mitochondrial-ER interactions mediated uniquely by mfn2 appear dispensable to functioning of the fly heart.

Mitochondrial fusion is essential to organelle homeostasis and organ health. Inexplicably, loss of function mutations of mitofusin 2 (Mfn2) specifically affect neurological tissue, causing Charcot Marie Tooth syndrome (CMT) and atypical optic atrophy. As CMT-linked Mfn2 mutations are predominantly within the GTPase domain, we postulated that Mfn2 mutations in other functional domains might affect non-neurological tissues. Here, we defined in vitro and in vivo consequences of rare human mutations in the poorly characterized Mfn2 HR1 domain. Human exome sequencing data identified 4 rare non-synonymous Mfn2 HR1 domain mutations, two bioinformatically predicted as damaging. Recombinant expression of these (Mfn2 M393I and R400Q) in Mfn2-null murine embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) revealed incomplete rescue of characteristic mitochondrial fragmentation, compared to wild-type human Mfn2 (hMfn2); Mfn2 400Q uniquely induced mitochondrial fragmentation in normal MEFs. To compare Mfn2 mutation effects in neurological and non-neurological tissues in vivo, hMfn2 and the two mutants were expressed in Drosophila eyes or heart tubes made deficient in endogenous fly mitofusin (dMfn) through organ-specific RNAi expression. The two mutants induced similar Drosophila eye phenotypes: small eyes and an inability to rescue the eye pathology induced by suppression of dMfn. In contrast, Mfn2 400Q induced more severe cardiomyocyte mitochondrial fragmentation and cardiac phenotypes than Mfn2 393I, including heart tube dilation, depressed fractional shortening, and progressively impaired negative geotaxis. These data reveal a central functional role for Mfn2 HR1 domains, describe organ-specific effects of two Mfn2 HR1 mutations, and strongly support prospective studies of Mfn2 400Q in heritable human heart disease of unknown genetic etiology.

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR) drives cardiomyocyte excitation-contraction coupling through the release and storage of Ca2+. Phasic fluctuations of Ca2+ require ATP. Mitochondria occupy ∼30% of the volume of cardiomyocytes and provide cardiomyocytes with ATP. Perturbations of mitochondria therefore have a detrimental effect on the heart. Mitochondrial homeostasis in mammals is regulated in part through fusion and fission by outer mitochondrial membrane proteins mitofusin 1 and 2 (Mfn1 and Mfn2) and in Drosophila by the homolog dMfn. Mutations in Mfn2 show impaired contractile function in humans (hMfn), mice (mMfn) and RNAi suppression in Drosophila (dMfn). Additionally Mfn2, independently of Mfn1, tethers the SR to mitochondria allowing for efficient transfer of Ca2+ between the organelles. It is currently not known whether mitochondria-SR tethering is required for proper Ca2+ cycling in cardiomyocytes. We monitored calcium transients in heart tubes of live flies, using the genetically encoded calcium indicator (GECI) GCaMP3.0 to study dynamic Ca2+ oscillations. Intensity signals from GCaMP3.0 in fly heart tubes are comparable to isolated cardiomyocytes in their rate cycling amplitude, and their response to L-type calcium channel antagonist, nifedipine. Additionally, non-calcium responsive GFP does not produce a signal that mimics the Ca2+ oscillations observed with GCaMP3.0. Comparisons between Wt Drosophila hearts and cardiomyopathic RNAi dMfn hearts expressing GCaMP3.0 have normal amplitude and time to decay constant Ca2+ signals. This study shows that suppression of dMfn with RNAi in the fly heart tube leads to cardiomyopathy. Monitoring intercellular Ca2+ levels with the (GECI) GCaMP3.0 demonstrates that Ca2+ signaling is not affected when mitochondria-SR tethering is disrupted.