Group 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3) are major regulators of inflammation and infection at mucosal barriers1. ILC3 development has been considered to be programmed1. Nevertheless, how ILC3 perceive, integrate and respond to local environmental signals remains unclear. Here we show that ILC3 sense their environment and control gut defence as part of a novel glial-ILC3-epithelial cell unit orchestrated by neurotrophic factors. We found that enteric ILC3 express the neuroregulatory receptor RET. ILC3-autonomous Ret ablation led to decreased innate interleukin-22 (IL-22), impaired epithelial reactivity, dysbiosis and increased susceptibility to bowel inflammation and infection. Neurotrophic factors directly controlled innate II22, downstream of p38 MAPK/ERK-AKT cascade and STAT3 activation. Strikingly, ILC3 were adjacent to neurotrophic factor expressing glial cells that exhibited stellate-shaped projections into ILC3 aggregates. Glial cells sensed microenvironmental cues in a MYD88 dependent manner to control neurotrophic factors and innate IL-22. Accordingly, glial-intrinsic Myd88 deletion led to impaired ILC3-derived IL-22 and pronounced propensity to gut inflammation and infection. Our work sheds light into a novel multi-tissue defence unit, revealing glial cells as central hubs of neuron and innate immune regulation via neurotrophic factor signals.
BackgroundThe skin harbors complex communities of resident microorganisms, yet little is known of their physiological roles and the molecular mechanisms that mediate cutaneous host-microbe interactions. Here, we profiled skin transcriptomes of mice reared in the presence and absence of microbiota to elucidate the range of pathways and functions modulated in the skin by the microbiota.ResultsA total of 2820 genes were differentially regulated in response to microbial colonization and were enriched in gene ontology (GO) terms related to the host-immune response and epidermal differentiation. Innate immune response genes and genes involved in cytokine activity were generally upregulated in response to microbiota and included genes encoding toll-like receptors, antimicrobial peptides, the complement cascade, and genes involved in IL-1 family cytokine signaling and homing of T cells. Our results also reveal a role for the microbiota in modulating epidermal differentiation and development, with differential expression of genes in the epidermal differentiation complex (EDC). Genes with correlated co-expression patterns were enriched in binding sites for the transcription factors Klf4, AP-1, and SP-1, all implicated as regulators of epidermal differentiation. Finally, we identified transcriptional signatures of microbial regulation common to both the skin and the gastrointestinal tract.ConclusionsWith this foundational approach, we establish a critical resource for understanding the genome-wide implications of microbially mediated gene expression in the skin and emphasize prospective ways in which the microbiome contributes to skin health and disease.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s40168-018-0404-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Highlights d Germ-free mice have abnormal skin barrier structure and function d Keratinocyte aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) mediates barrier function and repair d Human skin commensal microbes activate keratinocyte AHR d Targeting the microbiota-AHR axis promotes skin barrier repair in disease models
The reactions of antioxidants with superoxide radical were studied by cyclic voltammetry (CV)—and hydrodynamic voltammetry at a rotating ring-disk electrode (RRDE). In both methods, the superoxide is generated in solution from dissolved oxygen and then measured after being allowed to react with the antioxidant being studied. Both methods detected and measured the radical scavenging but the RRDE was able to give detailed insight into the antioxidant behavior. Three flavonoids, chrysin, quercetin and eriodictyol, were studied, their scavenging activity of superoxide was assessed and the molecular structure of each flavonoid was related to its scavenging capability. From our improved and novel RRDE method, we determine the ability of these 3 antioxidants to react with superoxide radical in a more quantitative manner than the classical CV. Density Functional Theory (DFT) and single crystal X-ray diffraction data provide structural information that assists in clarifying the scavenging molecular mechanism. Hydroxyls associated with the A ring, as found in chrysin, scavenge superoxide in a different manner than those found in the B ring of flavonoids, as those in quercetin and eriodictyol.
Skin is colonized by microbial communities (microbiota) that participate in immune homeostasis, development and maintenance of barrier function, and protection from pathogens. The past decade has been marked by an increased interest in the skin microbiota and its role in cutaneous health and disease, in part due to advances in next-generation sequencing platforms that enable high-throughput, culture-independent detection of bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Various approaches, including bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing and metagenomic shotgun sequencing, have been applied to profile microbial communities colonizing healthy skin and diseased skin including atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, and acne, among others. Here, we provide an overview of culture-dependent and -independent approaches to profiling the skin microbiota and the types of questions that may be answered by each approach. We additionally highlight important study design considerations, selection of controls, interpretation of results, and limitations and challenges.
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