The authors combined a multilevel model of parental context with a multidimensional conceptualization of parent involvement to examine the factors influencing parents' involvement in their children's schooling. Three sets of factors were identified: parent and child characteristics, family context, and teacher behavior and attitudes. A diverse sample of 209 mothers, their 3rd-5th grade children, and 28 teachers participated. Parents, teachers, and children reported on 3 types of involvement: school, cognitive, and personal. Mothers who felt efficacious, who saw their roles as that of teacher, and who viewed their children as less difficult were more involved in cognitive activities. A difficult context, social support, and teacher attitudes and practices were associated with both school and personal involvement, though some of these relations were moderated by gender with contextual factors affecting involvement of mothers of boys and classroom factors affecting those of girls. The importance of a multilevel approach to increasing parent involvement is discussed.
Though theories of emotion regulation acknowledge the important roles of caregivers, few studies have examined parents' strategies for helping children regulate distress. In this study, 140 mothers' strategies were coded during a situation in which their toddlers (12., 18-, 24-and 32.month-olds) were required to wait (parent-active). Children were also observed in a delay situation in which they regulated distress independently (parent-passive). Mothers initiated less active engagement with their older as compared to younger toddlers, and there were age-related increases in children's initiation of play activities with their mothers. Verbal strategies increased from 12 to 18 months and thereafter decreased. Controllingfor children's levels of distress in the parent-active situation, mothers who were more active had children who were more distressed when regulating independently. Results suggest that parents tailor their regulatory strategies to their children's capacities and that children require opportunities to autonomously regulate emotions to develop regulatory skills. emotion regulation mother strategies toddlerhood
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