Consistent with their role in host defense, mature dendritic cells (DCs) from central lymphoid organs preferentially prime for T helper cell type 1 (Th1)-polarized immunity. However, the “default” T helper response at mucosal surfaces demonstrates Th2 polarity, which is reflected in the cytokine profiles of activated T cells from mucosal lymph nodes. This study on rat respiratory tract DCs (RTDCs) provides an explanation for this paradox. We demonstrate that freshly isolated RTDCs are functionally immature as defined in vitro, being surface major histocompatibility complex (MHC) II lo, endocytosishi, and mixed lymphocyte reactionlo, and these cells produce mRNA encoding interleukin (IL)-10. After ovalbumin (OVA)-pulsing and adoptive transfer, freshly isolated RTDCs preferentially stimulated Th2-dependent OVA-specific immunoglobulin (Ig)G1 responses, and antigen-stimulated splenocytes from recipient animals produced IL-4 in vitro. However, preculture with granulocyte/macrophage colony stimulating factor increased their in vivo IgG priming capacity by 2–3 logs, inducing production of both Th1- and Th2-dependent IgG subclasses and high levels of IFN-γ by antigen-stimulated splenocytes. Associated phenotypic changes included upregulation of surface MHC II and B7 expression and IL-12 p35 mRNA, and downregulation of endocytosis, MHC II processing– associated genes, and IL-10 mRNA expression. Full expression of IL-12 p40 required additional signals, such as tumor necrosis factor α or CD40 ligand. These results suggest that the observed Th2 polarity of the resting mucosal immune system may be an inherent property of the resident DC population, and furthermore that mobilization of Th1 immunity relies absolutely on the provision of appropriate microenvironmental costimuli.

Indirect evidence implicates gamma delta T cells in the cross-regulation of CD4 alpha beta T cell responses. Adoptive transfer of small numbers of gamma delta T cells from ovalbumin (OVA)-tolerant mice selectively suppressed TH2-dependent immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibody production without affecting parallel IgG responses. Challenge of these gamma delta T cells in vitro with specific antigen resulted in production of high levels of interferon gamma. The effects of the gamma delta T cells may be mediated by direct inhibition of OVA-specific CD4+ TH2 cell proliferation or selection for specific CD4 TH2 cells.

A key rate-limiting step in the adaptive immune response at peripheral challenge sites is the transmission of antigen signals to T cells in regional lymph nodes. Recent evidence suggests that specialized dendritic cells (DC) fulfill this surveillance function in the resting state, but their relatively slow turnover in most peripheral tissues brings into question their effectiveness in signaling the arrival of highly pathogenic sources of antigen which require immediate mobilization of the full range of host defenses for maintenance of homeostasis. However, the present report demonstrates that recruitment of a wave of DC into the respiratory tract mucosa is a universal feature of the acute cellular response to local challenge with bacterial, viral, and soluble protein antigens. Consistent with this finding, we also demonstrate that freshly isolated respiratory mucosal DC respond in vitro to a variety of CC chemokines as well as complementary cleavage products and N-formyl-methionyl-leucine-phenylalanine. This suggests that rapid amplification of specific antigen surveillance at peripheral challenge sites is an integral feature of the innate immune response at mucosal surfaces, and serves as an “early warning system” to alert the adaptive immune system to incoming pathogens.

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Dendritic cells (DC) were purified by flow cytometry from rat tracheal mucosa; they exhibited the phenotypic characteristics of immature DC including high endocytic activity, low CD80/86 expression, and in vitro responsiveness to a broad range of CC chemokines. Daily treatment of adult rats with the selective CCR1 and CCR5 antagonist Met-RANTES reduced baseline numbers of tracheal intraepithelial DC by 50–60%, and pretreatment of animals with Met-RANTES before inhalation of aerosol containing heat-killed bacteria abolished the rapid DC influx into the epithelium that occurred in untreated controls, implicating CCR1 and CCR5 and their ligands in recruitment of immature DC precursors into resting airway tissues and during acute bacterial-induced inflammation. Comparable levels of DC recruitment were observed during airway mucosal Sendai virus infection and after aerosol challenge of sensitized animals with the soluble recall Ag OVA. However, Met-RANTES did not affect these latter responses, indicating the use of alternative chemokine receptors/ligands for DC recruitment, or possibly attraction of different DC subsets, depending on the nature of the eliciting stimulus.

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Methanobrevibacter millerae sp. nov. and Methanobrevibacter olleyae sp. nov., methanogens from the ovine and bovine rumen that can utilize formate for growth In an attempt to design anti-methanogen vaccines that would decrease methane emissions from ruminants (Wright et al., 2004a), methanogens were enriched and isolated (Kicic, 1995;Munyard, 2000) from ovine and bovine rumen contents. Phylogenetic surveys of ovine rumen contents (Wright et al., 2004b) were also conducted. The studies revealed that the majority of methanogens from the rumen contents of the Western Australian sheep and cattle studied belonged to the genus Methanobrevibacter. The aim of this research was to determine whether the Western Australian isolates represented novel species of the genus Methanobrevibacter or were members of recognized species.A polyphasic approach was taken to characterize four strains by using the minimal standards as detailed by Boone & Whitman (1988). Three strains were isolated from bovine rumen contents (strains AK-87, OCP and ZA-10 T ) and one strain from ovine rumen contents (KM1H5-1P T ). The strains were purified by serial dilution on bottle plates with modified BRN medium with H 2 /CO 2 (80 : 20) at 200 kPa (Balch et al., 1979;Miller et al., 1982). For purification of strain OCP, a mixture of four antibiotics was used (ml 21 :The GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ accession numbers for the 16S rRNA gene sequences of strains T and KM1H5-1P T are AY196673 and AY615201.