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Deformation styles within a fold–thrust belt can be understood in terms of the spatial organization and geometry of the fold structures. In young fold–thrust belts such as the Zagros, this geometry is reflected topographically by concordant landform morphology. Thus, the distribution of deformation structures can be characterized using satellite image analysis, digital elevation models, the drainage network and geomorphological indicators. The two distinct fold types considered in this study (fault-bend folds and detachment folds) both trending NW–SE, interact with streams flowing NE–SW from the High Zagros Mountains into the Persian Gulf. Multiple abandoned stream channels cross fault-bend folds related to deep-seated thrust faults. In contrast, detachment folds, which propagate laterally relatively rapidly, are characterized by diverted major stream channels and dendritic minor channels at the fold tips. Thus these two fold types can be differentiated on the basis of their geometry (fault-bend folds, being long, linear and asymmetrical, can be distinguished from detachment folds, which tend to be shorter and symmetrical) and on their associated geomorphological structures. The spatial organization of these structures in the Zagros Simply Folded Belt indicates that deformation is the result of the interaction of footwall collapse and the associated formation of long, linear fault-bend folds, and serial folding characterized by relatively short periclinal folds. Footwall collapse occurs first, followed by serial folding to the NE (i.e. in the hanging wall of the fault-bend folds), often on higher detachments within the sediment pile.

Burberry, Caroline M., "Spatial and temporal variation in penetrative strain during compression: Insights from analog models" (2015).

The Zagros orogenic belt is underlain by a complex faulted Precambrian basement. Major fault trends originating in this basement have been invoked to explain large‐scale structural changes along the strike of the orogen, e.g. the development of the Kirkuk Embayment (Kurdistan, Iraq) and the Lurestan Salient (Iran). However, within the Kirkuk Embayment, these structural trends have not previously been considered as an interacting group of faults which are periodically reactivated. This contribution first presents a revised basement fault map for the Kirkuk Embayment, created from interpreted gravity data, existing fault maps and remote sensing lineament analyses. This map is then compared to surface structure maps, published facies maps and source rock maturity data using GIS techniques. The object is to define the relationship between the basement faults and surface structures, fades and source‐rock maturity through time. Surface anticline orientation and location, as well as a number of major facies changes within the cover sequence, and the maturity of Triassic source rocks, are constrained by the interaction of the Najd and Transverse fault trends. A third basement trend, the Nabitah trend, has a more subtle effect on Phanerozoic geology. The Kirkuk Embayment can be divided into a series of semi‐independent basement blocks, defined by these basement fault trends. The interaction of these semi‐independent blocks has created local but predictable differences in surface structures, sediment thickness and facies, and variations in the maturity of Triassic source units across the Kirkuk Embayment. An understanding of the location and behaviour of basement faults within this hydrocarbon province is therefore a valuable predictive tool in exploration.

The spatial arrangement of fold types within the Zagros Simply Folded Belt was analysed using satellite images, a digital elevation model and a digital drainage network. Distinct fold geometries, principally fault-bend folds and detachment folds, can be identified by characteristic interactions with streams flowing SW from the High Zagros Mountains into the Persian Gulf. In addition, the morphology of the landforms is reflected in the minor channel patterns across the folds. This morphology can also be categorised using geomorphic indices, L/W ratio and symmetry index. The distribution of fold types is shown for the region N27• -N30• , E50• -E54• at a scale of 1:750,000. Anomalously long, high-aspect ratio folds, coincident with topographic steps, were inferred to be fault-bend folds, crossed by multiple wind gaps, overlying major thrust faults. These faults formed sequentially as the deformation front migrated from the collision zone towards the SW, causing diversion of stream channels. Movement up thrust ramps created fault-bend folds behind which serial detachment folding developed in the cover.

Sheeting joints are ubiquitous in outcrops of the Navajo Sandstone on the west-central Colorado Plateau, USA. As in granitic terrains, these are opening-mode fractures and form parallel to land surfaces. In our study areas in south-central Utah, liquefaction during Jurassic seismic events destroyed stratification in large volumes of eolian sediment, and first-order sheeting joints are now preferentially forming in these structureless (isotropic) sandstones. Vertical cross-joints abut the land-surface-parallel sheeting joints, segmenting broad (tens of meters) rock sheets into equant, polygonal slabs ~5 m wide and 0.25 m thick. On steeper slopes, exposed polygonal slabs have domed surfaces; eroded slabs reveal an onion-like internal structure formed by 5-m-wide, second-order sheeting joints that terminate against the crossjoints, and may themselves be broken into polygons. In many structureless sandstone bodies, however, the lateral extent of first-order sheeting joints is severely limited by pre-existing, vertical tectonic joints. In this scenario, non-conjoined sheeting joints form extensive agglomerations of laterally contiguous, polygonal domes 3-6 m wide, exposing exhumed sheeting joints. These laterally confined sheeting joints are, in turn, segmented by short vertical cross-joints into numerous small (~0.5 m) polygonal rock masses. We hypothesize that the sheeting joints in the Navajo Sandstone form via contemporaneous, land-surface-parallel compressive stresses, and that vertical cross-joints that delineate polygonal masses (both large and small) form during compression-driven buckling of thin, convex-up rock slabs. Abrasion of friable sandstone during runoff events widens vertical tectonic joints into gullies, enhancing land-surface convexity. Polygonal rock slabs described here provide a potential model for interpretation of similar-appearing patterns developed on the surface of Mars.

16Karstification positively and negatively impacts the quality of carbonate reservoirs; for example, 17 dissolution and brecciation can increase porosity and permeability, whereas cavern collapse or 18 cementation driven by post-karstification fluid flow may occlude porosity and reduce permeability. Karst 19 may also pose challenges to drilling due to the unpredictable and highly variable porosity and 20 permeability structure of the rock, and the corresponding difficulty in predicting drilling mud-weight. 21When combined, outcrop, petrographic and geochemical data can constrain the style, distribution and 22 origin of seismic-scale karst, which may provide an improved understanding of carbonate reservoir 23 architecture and allow development of safer drilling programs. However, relatively few studies have 24 utilized seismic reflection data to characterize the regional development of seismic-scale karst features. 25In this study we use time-migrated 2D seismic reflection data to determine the distribution, scale and 26 genesis of karst in a 3 km (9800 ft) thick, Jurassic-Miocene carbonate-dominated succession in the 27 Persian Gulf. We map 43 seismic-scale karst features, which are expressed as vertical pipes columns of 28 2 chaotic reflections capped by downward-deflected depressions that are onlapped by overlying strata. 29The columns are up to 2 km (6500 ft) tall, spanning the Upper Jurassic to Upper Cretaceous succession, 30 and are up to 5.5 km (18,000 ft) in diameter. We interpret these pipes formed in response to hypogene 31 karstification by fluids focused along pre-existing faults, with hypogene-generated depressions 32 enhanced by epigene processes during key intervals of exposure. Our study indicates that seismic 33 reflection data can and should be used in conjunction with petrographic and geochemical techniques to 34 determine the presence of hypogene karst plays, and to help improve the characterization of carbonate 35 reservoirs and associated drilling hazards. 36 37 Introduction 38

The accommodation of shortening by penetrative strain is widely considered as an important process during contraction, but the distribution and magnitude of penetrative strain in a contractional system with a ductile décollement are not well understood. Penetrative strain constitutes the proportion of the total shortening across an orogen that is not accommodated by the development of macroscale structures, such as folds and thrusts. In order to create a framework for understanding penetrative strain in a brittle system above a ductile décollement, eight analog models, each with the same initial configuration, were shortened to different amounts in a deformation apparatus. Models consisted of a silicon polymer base layer overlain by three fine-grained sand layers. A grid was imprinted on the surface to track penetrative strain during shortening. As the model was shortened, a series of box fold structures developed, with a zone of penetrative strain in the foreland. Penetrative strain in the foreland decreases away from the fold belt. Restoration of the model layers to the horizontal indicates that penetrative strain accounts for 90.5%-30.8% of total shortening in a brittle system with a ductile décollement, compared to 45.2%-3.6% within a totally brittle system. Analog model geometries were consistent with the deformation styles observed in salt-floored systems, such as the Swiss Jura. Penetrative strain has not been accounted for in previous studies of salt-floored regions and estimates of this type could help resolve concerns of missing shortening highlighted by global positioning system data.