Although the emergence of large confinement operations out of a system previously dominated by mid-sized confinement has been one major structural trend in Wisconsin dairy farming since the 1990s, a second structural trend has been the significant emergence of moderate-sized dairy farms using alternative management strategies: management-intensive rotational grazing (MIRG) (25% of Wisconsin's dairy farms), organic production (3%) and Amish farm production practices (5-7%). This paper presents the first systematic and representative comparative study on the structure, behavior and performance of multiple pasture-based dairy farm strategies. Wisconsin is an ideal site for this study given the prevalence of pasture-based farms, yet many of the findings here should be relevant for other traditional dairy states where similar types of alternative farm management systems are also emerging. Divergence with respect to farm strategy has implications for structure, technology and management adoption patterns as well as farmer satisfaction levels. Our findings suggest that alternative dairy farming systems are likely to become more prevalent on the agricultural landscape of Wisconsin.
The scientific community and most mainstream agriculturalists typically design fertilizer recommendations to provide a ‘sufficient level of available nutrients’ to meet the annual N, P and K requirements of common field crops. Soil balancing is another approach to managing soil fertility that focuses on the levels of Ca, Mg and K to achieve a desired base cation saturation ratio (BCSR). Soil balancing is believed to be practiced frequently by organic and other alternative farmers but is viewed skeptically by conventional agricultural scientists due to a lack of support for the idea in the published scientific literature. This study represents a pioneering effort to collect systematic data on the extent of soil balancing, how it is practiced and the types of outcomes reported by organic farmers. Our survey of over 850 farmers who grow certified organic corn in Indiana, Michigan, Ohio and Pennsylvania found that over half report using a soil-balancing approach based on BCSR. Their practice of soil balancing frequently includes more than management of base cations, but also uses a wide range of soil amendment products (such as purchased organic NPK fertilizers, micronutrients, microbial stimulants and soil inoculants) other than those applied specifically for cation balance. Farms that rely on vegetable and dairy production for most of their income, and Amish farmers who rely on horses for fieldwork, were more likely to report using a soil-balancing program. Self-described soil balancers perceived positive agronomic outcomes from the use of a BCSR program, including improvements in soil physical and biological properties and improved crop health and quality. Although farmers in our study report extensive use and positive perceived outcomes from soil-balancing methods, the scientific research literature has been unable to reproduce evidence that manipulating soil base cation levels has any systematic effect on crop yield. Future research could consider the interacting effects of BCSR with other field management practices to more closely approximate the actual practices of farmers.
Base cation saturation ratio (BCSR) is a soil management philosophy that postulates having an ideal ratio of base cations for maximizing crop yields. This practice is widely used on organic farms, and BCSR practitioners commonly describe improvements in soil health and crop productivity. However, studies evaluating the efficacy of BCSR on soil biological and physical properties are lacking. This 6-yr field study evaluated the effects of changing soil calcium/magnesium (Ca/Mg) ratios on organic corn (Zea mays L.) and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] yields and comprehensive soil health properties at two sites in Ohio with contrasting soils. Three soil amendments-(a) control, (b) gypsum (calcium sulfate), and (c) epsom (magnesium sulfate)-were applied to drive soil Ca and Mg levels in opposite directions. Amendment application resulted in soil Ca/Mg ratios 1.6 and 2.5 times higher in gypsum soils relative to epsom soils. Soil biological health, measured by permanganate oxidizable carbon, mineralizable carbon, and soil protein, was not affected by either gypsum or epsom applications. Likewise, soil physical quality measured by aggregate stability, infiltration, and penetration resistance was not significantly affected by gypsum or epsom additions at either site. Amendment application did not affect crop yields and there was no significant relationship between crop yields and the range of soil Ca/Mg ratios. Results from this study do not provide any evidence that BCSR improves soil health and organic field crop productivity.
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