Micronutrient inadequacy remains a nutritional problem in Chinese children. However, the associations between dietary diversity and inadequate micronutrient intake have not been extensively studied. A total of 2012 children aged 3–17 years from the China Health and Nutrition Survey were included for analysis. Dietary diversity score (DDS) and food variety scores (FVS) were assessed based on three 24-h recall periods. The nutrient adequacy ratio (NAR) was used to determine the micronutrient adequacy of the diet. The mean adequacy ratio (MAR, %) was defined as the sum of each NAR divided by the number of involved micronutrients. Overall micronutrient inadequacy (OMI) was defined as having a MAR below 0.75. Micronutrient inadequacy was defined as the proportion of individuals whose nutrient intake was less than the estimated average requirement. After adjustment confounders, DDS and FVSs were positively associated with MAR and NAR of most nutrients except sodium (p < 0.05). A higher DDS was negatively associated with the prevalence of inadequate intake of vitamin A, riboflavin, vitamin C, iron, zinc, selenium, niacin, phosphorus, magnesium and OMI. Similar results were found for FVSs. In conclusion, this study indicates that poor dietary diversity and food variety in Chinese children are directly associated with inadequate micronutrient intake.

Vitamin A equivalency of b-carotene (VEB) is defined as the amount of ingested b-carotene in mg that is absorbed and converted into 1 mg retinol (vitamin A) in the human body. The objective of the present review was to discuss the different estimates for VEB in various types of dietary food matrices. Different methods are discussed such as mass balance, dose-response and isotopic labelling. The VEB is currently estimated by the US Institute of Medicine (IOM) as 12:1 in a mixed diet and 2:1 in oil. For humans consuming b-carotene dissolved in oil, a VEB between 2:1 and 4:1 is feasible. A VEB of approximately 4:1 is applicable for biofortified cassava, yellow maize and Golden Rice, which are specially bred for human consumption in developing countries. We propose a range of 9:1-16:1 for VEB in a mixed diet that encompasses the IOM VEB of 12:1 and is realistic for a Western diet under Western conditions. For a 'prudent' (i.e. non-Western) diet including a variety of commonly consumed vegetables, a VEB could range from 9:1 to 28:1 in a mixed diet.Key words: Vitamin A equivalency: b-Carotene: Bioconversion: Human studies Vitamin A equivalency of b-carotene (VEB) is defined as the amount of ingested b-carotene in mg that is absorbed and converted into 1 mg retinol (vitamin A) in the human body. A certain amount of the ingested b-carotene is excreted in the faeces and the remaining part is absorbed, but not all of the absorbed b-carotene will be converted into retinol and enter the lymph, blood and finally the liver and other tissues.Vitamin A can be obtained from animal-derived foods as preformed vitamin A, or from vegetables and fruits as provitamin A carotenoids, mainly b-carotene, a-carotene and b-cryptoxanthin. In the Western diet, about 20 to 34 % of the habitual intake of vitamin A originates from provitamin A carotenoids (1 -3) . In contrast, the majority of individuals in developing countries require . 70 % of provitamin A carotenoids in the diet (4) . The effect of food matrices of vegetables and fruits in which b-carotene is incorporated has been found to exert a major influence on measured VEB.The objective of the present review was to discuss the different estimates for VEB in various types of dietary food matrices.The question is which VEB should be used for humans in general good health.For this purpose, first, the currently used VEB are described. Second, a brief overview of the main influencing factors on the assessment of VEB is given. Third, the habitual daily intake of dietary vitamin A and b-carotene in humans is described. Fourth, different methods for estimating VEB are discussed to evaluate the reliability of the different studies. The studies are grouped by the different types of dietary food matrices in which b-carotene is incorporated, which are the oil matrix, the complex mixed diet matrix with various vegetables and fruits and the single vegetable or fruit matrix. Currently used vitamin A equivalency of b-caroteneCurrently, two estimates of VEB for the oil matrix and two estimates ...

Faas et al.Microbiome, Immune Response, Pregnancy pregnancy in mice. The different immunological adaptations to pregnancy between conventional and germfree mice, such as the increase in Treg and tendency to an increase in Th2 cells in conventional pregnant mice only, may suggest that the microbiota may play a role in adapting the maternal immune response to pregnancy.

Fruit and vegetable consumption produces changes in several biomarkers in blood. The present study aimed to examine the doseresponse curve between fruit and vegetable consumption and carotenoid (a-carotene, b-carotene, b-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein and zeaxanthin), folate and vitamin C concentrations. Furthermore, a prediction model of fruit and vegetable intake based on these biomarkers and subject characteristics (i.e. age, sex, BMI and smoking status) was established. Data from twelve diet-controlled intervention studies were obtained to develop a prediction model for fruit and vegetable intake (including and excluding fruit and vegetable juices). The study population in the present individual participant data meta-analysis consisted of 526 men and women. Carotenoid, folate and vitamin C concentrations showed a positive relationship with fruit and vegetable intake. Measures of performance for the prediction model were calculated using cross-validation. For the prediction model of fruit, vegetable and juice intake, the root mean squared error (RMSE) was 258·0 g, the correlation between observed and predicted intake was 0·78 and the mean difference between observed and predicted intake was 21·7 g (limits of agreement: 2 466·3, 462·8 g). For the prediction of fruit and vegetable intake (excluding juices), the RMSE was 201·1 g, the correlation was 0·65 and the mean bias was 2·4 g (limits of agreement: 2368·2, 373·0 g). The prediction models which include the biomarkers and subject characteristics may be used to estimate average intake at the group level and to investigate the ranking of individuals with regard to their intake of fruit and vegetables when validating questionnaires that measure intake.

Background: Retinol isotope dilution (RID) methodology provides a quantitative estimate of total body vitamin A (VA) stores and is the best method currently available for assessing VA status in adults and children. The methodology has also been used to test the efficacy of VA interventions in a number of low-income countries. Infections, micronutrient deficiencies (eg, iron and zinc), liver disease, physiological age, pregnancy, and lactation are known or hypothesized to influence the accuracy of estimating total body VA stores using the isotope dilution technique. Results: Various equations and compartmental modeling have been used to estimate the total body VA stores using stable isotopes, including a newer 3-day equation that provides an estimate of total body VA stores in healthy adults. At present, there is insufficient information on absorption of the isotope tracer, and there is a need to further investigate how various factors impact the application of RID techniques in field studies. Conclusions: Isotope dilution methodology can provide useful estimates of total body VA stores in apparently healthy populations under controlled study conditions. However, more research is needed to determine whether the method is suitable for use in settings where there is a high prevalence of infection, iron deficiency, and/or liver disease.