This survey investigated the current status of calculator use in classrooms and schools. The results indicated that the prevailing policy in the sample of high schools is to allow the use of calculators during classroom learning activities and tests. Scientific calculators are more frequently used than graphing calculators in algebra I and geometry; whereas, graphing calculators are more frequently used in algebra II and precalculus/trigonometry. At the time of this survey, school policies regarding the use of graphing calculators with symbolic algebra capabilities were still not determined.
The recent interest in wisdom in professional health care practice is explored in this article. Key features of wisdom are identified via consideration of certain classical, ancient and modern sources. Common themes are discussed in terms of their contribution to 'clinical wisdom' itself and this is reviewed against the nature of contemporary nursing education. The distinctive features of wisdom (recognition of contextual factors, the place of the person and timeliness) may enable their significance for practice to be promoted in more coherent ways in nursing education. Wisdom as practical knowledge (phronesis) is offered as a complementary perspective within the educational preparation and practice of students of nursing. Certain limitations within contemporary UK nursing education are identified that may inhibit development of clinical wisdom. These are: the modularization of programmes in higher education institutions, the division of pastoral and academic support and the relationship between theory and practice.
Previous investigations of the ability of content experts and test developers to estimate item difficulty have, for the most part, produced disappointing results. These investigations were based on a noncomparative method of independently rating the difficulty of items. In this article, we argue that, by eliciting comparative judgments of difficulty, judges can more accurately estimate item difficulties. In this study, judges from different backgrounds rank ordered the difficulty of SAT® mathematics items in sets of 7 items. Results showed that judges are reasonably successful in rank ordering several items in terms of difficulty, with little variability across judges and content areas. Simulations of a possible implementation of comparative judgments for difficulty estimation show that it is possible to achieve high correlations between true and estimated difficulties with relatively few comparisons. Implications of these results for the test development process are discussed.
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