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The current situation, heavily influenced by the ongoing pandemic, puts vaccines back into the spotlight. However, the conventional and traditional vaccines present disadvantages, particularly related to immunogenicity, stability, and storage of the final product. Often, such products require the maintenance of a “cold chain,” impacting the costs, the availability, and the distribution of vaccines. Here, after a recall of the mode of action of vaccines and the types of vaccines currently available, we analyze the past, present, and future of vaccine formulation. The past focuses on conventional formulations, the present discusses the use of nanoparticles for vaccine delivery and as adjuvants, while the future presents microneedle patches as alternative formulation and administration route. Finally, we compare the advantages and disadvantages of injectable solutions, nanovaccines, and microneedles in terms of efficacy, stability, and patient-friendly design. Graphical abstract Different approaches to vaccine formulation development, the conventional vaccine formulations from the past, the current development of lipid nanoparticles as vaccines, and the near future microneedles formulations are discussed in this review.
This study aims to explore the use of polymeric microneedles (MNs) for the transdermal delivery of drugs, a noninvasive and convenient method that avoids first-pass metabolism and gastrointestinal complications. Specifically, a double-layered MN formulation is developed using polyvinylpyrrolidone and cross-linked poly(methyl vinyl ether-alt-maleic acid), comprising a dissolvable layer and a hydrogel-forming layer. Meloxicam serves as the model drug, and no organic solvents are employed in the manufacturing process to reduce toxicity. Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS) is utilized to confirm that the manufacturing process does not alter the drug's physical properties. In vitro and ex vivo studies demonstrate that the double-layered MN formulation exhibits faster drug release in the first few hours, followed by a slower release. This results in extended bioavailability in vivo compared to the commercial oral formulation of meloxicam. Preliminary results indicate that the MN formulation is also effective in pain relief and inflammation reduction. The short-term stability of the MN formulation is also confirmed, including its mechanical properties, sustained skin permeability, drug physical properties and distribution within MNs using CARS microscopy. Overall, these results suggest that the double-layered MN formulation holds significant potential for transdermal drug delivery, offering a safer and more effective alternative to traditional oral administration.
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