Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are short cationic peptides that penetrate cells by interacting with the negatively charged plasma membrane; however, the detailed uptake mechanism is not clear. In contrary to the conventional mode of action of CPPs, we show here that a CPP, PepFect14 (PF14), forms negatively charged nanocomplexes with oligonucleotides and their uptake is mediated by class-A scavenger receptors (SCARAs). Specific inhibitory ligands of SCARAs, such as fucoidin, polyinosinic acid, and dextran sulfate, totally inhibit the activity of PF14-oligonucleotide nanocomplexes in the HeLa pLuc705 splice-correction cell model, while nonspecific, chemically related molecules do not. Furthermore, RNA interference (RNAi) knockdown of SCARA subtypes (SCARA3 and SCARA5) that are expressed in this cell line led to a significant reduction of the activity to <50%. In line with this, immunostaining shows prevalent colocalization of the nanocomplexes with the receptors, and electron microscopy images show no binding or internalization of the nanocomplexes in the presence of the inhibitory ligands. Interestingly, naked oligonucleotides also colocalize with SCARAs when used at high concentrations. These results demonstrate the involvement of SCARA3 and SCARA5 in the uptake of PF14-oligonucleotide nanocomplexes and suggest for the first time that some CPP-based systems function through scavenger receptors, which could yield novel possibilities to understand and improve the transfection by CPPs.

Scavenger receptors (SRs) are a large family of multifunctional receptors that are involved in a range of physiologic and pathologic processes. The ability of class A scavenger receptors (SR-As) to bind anionic ligands facilitates the internalization of negatively charged cell-penetrating peptide (CPP)-nucleic acid nanocomplexes and thus makes them attractive targets for delivery of various nucleic acids. Recently, we demonstrated that SR-A3 and SR-A5 are recruited from intracellular membranes to the plasma membrane after incubation with PepFect 14-splice-switching oligonucleotide complexes. Here, we examined the mechanisms responsible for translocation of SR-As to the cell surface. We demonstrate that, in addition to nanocomplexes, some amphipathic CPPs are able to induce externalization of SR-A3 and SR-A5, and this process requires the presence of calcium ions. Furthermore, translocation of SR-A3 and SR-A5 requires activity of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase, intact actin cytoskeleton, and the presence of serum proteins in culture medium.-Juks, C., Lorents, A., Arukuusk, P., Langel, Ü., Pooga, M. Cell-penetrating peptides recruit type A scavenger receptors to the plasma membrane for cellular delivery of nucleic acids.

Cell penetrating peptides are efficient tools to deliver various bioactive cargos into cells, but their exact functioning mechanism is still debated. Recently, we showed that a delivery peptide PepFect14 condenses oligonucleotides (ON) into negatively charged nanocomplexes that are taken up by cells via class A scavenger receptors (SR-As). Here we unraveled the uptake mechanism and intracellular trafficking of PF14-ON nanocomplexes in HeLa cells. Macropinocytosis and caveolae-mediated endocytosis are responsible for the intracellular functionality of nucleic acids packed into nanocomplexes. However, only a negligible fraction of the complexes were trafficked to endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi apparatus - the common destinations of caveolar endocytosis. Neither were the PF14-SCO nanocomplexes routed to endo-lysosomal pathway, and they stayed in vesicles with slightly acidic pH, which were not marked with LysoSensor. "Naked" ON, in contrary, was rapidly targeted to acidic vesicles and lysosomes. The transmission electron microscopy analysis of interactions between SR-As and PF14-ON nanocomplexes on ultrastructural level revealed that nanocomplexes localized on the plasma membrane in close proximity to SR-As and their colocalization is retained in cells, suggesting that PF14-ON complexes associate with targeted receptors.

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are efficient non-viral delivery vectors for bioactive cargos, both in vitro and in vivo. Cargo molecules can be attached to CPPs either via covalent conjugation or by complex formation using co-incubation, which is typically used for charged molecules such as nucleic acids. The latter technique is efficiently used in case of CADY, MPG, Pep peptides, NickFects and PepFects that condense oligonucleotides (ONs) into nanoparticles, which efficiently enter cells and induce biological effects. Despite being highly promising candidates for developing new-generation medicines, CPPs' internalization mechanisms and intracellular trafficking are still far from being well-understood, and obtained data are often controversial. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is an informative and valuable tool for examining the mechanisms of CPP-ON nanoparticles. TEM enables to visualize nanoparticles or single molecules labeled with Nanogold™ tag, and follow their association with cells and intracellular localization. In this chapter, we present methods for preparation of CPP-ON nanoparticles for TEM analysis and for examination of their interactions with the plasma membrane, and subsequent cellular uptake either by direct translocation or endocytosis. In case of endocytosis, ONs have to be released from endosomes and reach their target site in nucleus or cytoplasm to reveal their activity. TEM enables to estimate when the endosomal escape begins, from which type of endosomal vesicles it occurs, whether the vesicles are broken, or nanocomplexes translocate across the membrane into cytosol. Since single ONs could be followed, the time-frame that is necessary for the splice-switching nucleotides to translocate into cell nucleus can be analyzed by TEM.

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