Turkish and Kurdish HLA profiles are studied for the first time. The comparative study of their allele frequencies, characteristic haplotypes, genetic distances with other Mediterraneans is complemented by neighbor-joining dendrograms and correspondence analyses. Turks, Kurds, Armenians, Iranians, Jews, Lebanese and other (Eastern and Western) Mediterranean groups seem to share a common ancestry: the older "Mediterranean" substratum. No sign of the postulated Indo-European (Aryan) invasion (1200 B.C.) is detected by our genetic analysis. It is concluded that this invasion, if occurred, had a relatively few invaders in comparison to the already settled populations, i.e. Anatolian Hittite and Hurrian groups (older than 2000 B.C.). These may have given rise to present-day Kurdish, Armenian and Turkish populations.

The HLA allele frequency distribution of the Mayans from Guatemala was studied and compared with those of other First American Natives and worldwide populations (a total of 12,364 chromosomes and 6182 individuals from 60 different populations). The main conclusions were (1): the closest Amerindian group to Mayans is the Arhuacs, who were the first recorded Caribbean Islands' inhabitants (2). Mayans are not so close to Mesoamerican Zapotec, Mixe and Mixtec Amerindians, who genetically cluster together. Mixe had been related to Mayans only on linguistic bases (3). DRB1*0407 and DRB1*0802 alleles are found in 50% of Mayans; these alleles are also found in other Amerindians, but the Mayans' high frequencies may be showing a founder effect for this Mesoamerican-Caribbean population (4). Extended Mayan specific HLA haplotypes are described for the first time (5). Language and genes do not completely correlate in microgeographical studies (6). Significant genetic input from outside is not noticed in Meso and South American Amerindians according to the genetic analyses; while all world populations (including Africans, Europeans, Asians, Australians, Polynesians, North American Na-Dene Indians and Eskimos) are genetically related. Meso and South American Amerindians tend to remain isolated in the neighbour joining analyses.

HLA-A, -B, -DRB1, -DQA1 and -DQB1 alleles have been studied in three relatively isolated populations of northern Spain from Cantabria ( Pas Valleys inhabitants or Pasiegos and Cabuernigos) and from the Basque Country (Arratia Valley inhabitants). These populations have been compared with neighbouring ones and other Mediterraneans by using neighbour-joining dendrograms and plane genetic distances.

Heterogeneous patterns of admixture reveal a genetic substructure within the Department of Bolivar. On the paternal side, five out of the six communities studied exhibit a predominantly European gene pool. The exception is Palenque, where European input (38%) is more significant than we had expected.

Amerindians origins and prehistory are still debated. HLA profile is different to all other World populations, although they have particular alleles in common with Asians, Australians and Pacific Islanders. In the present work, HLA-A, -B, -DRB1, -DQB1 alleles have been studied in Wayu Amerindians from Colombia. HLA alleles haplotypes, genetic distances and NJ dendrograms were calculated by Arlequin and DISPAN software. Only a few both class I and class II alleles have been observed. Most common extended haplotypes include: A*24-B*51-DRB1*0403-DQB1*0302, A*2-B*15-DRB1*1602-DQB1*0301, A*2-B*35-DRB1*0407-DQB1*0302, but also A*68-B*15-DRB1*0403-DQB1*0302. No trace of Caucasoid or Negroid admixture is detected. The Wayu HLA profile is typical from Amerindians and shows how languages and genes do not correlated particularly in this case (i.e., Wayu closest HLA genetic group is North Argentinian Guarani group). Results obtained in this work may be useful for future transplant programs and also for HLA linked diseases and individualized pharmacogenetics.