T he Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) sets the policy framework for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use through the commitments of 195 countries and the European Union. The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 included Aichi Biodiversity Target 12, which set the goal for 2020 of preventing the extinction of known threatened species and improving and sustaining their conservation status. Despite government commitments and successful efforts for certain species 1 , the overall extinction risk continues to increase, and widespread implementation shortfalls will prevent Target 12 from being met 2 . A new global framework with revised goals and targets is currently being negotiated, which places the stabilization and restoration of species' populations as an outcome goal for 2030, as a stepping stone towards the CBD's 2050 Vision 3,4 .
54We urgently need a more resilient food supply system that is robust enough to absorb and 55 recover quickly from shocks, and to continuously provide food in the face of significant 56 threats. The simplified global food supply chain we currently rely upon exacerbates threats 57 to supply and is unstable. Much attention has been given to how producers can maximise 58 yield, but less attention has been given to other stakeholders in the supply chain. 59Increasingly, transnational food retailers (supermarkets) occupy a critical point in the chain, 60 which makes them highly sensitive to variability in supply, and able to encourage change of 61 practice across large areas. We contend that the concentration in the chain down to a few 62 retailers in each country provides an opportunity to increase resilience of future supply 63 given appropriate, scale-dependent interventions. We make ten recommendations aimed at 64 reducing variability in supply that can be driven by retailers (although some of the 65 interventions will be implemented by producers). Importantly, resilience in our food supply 66 requires the restoration and expansion of ecosystem services at the landscape-scale. Highlights 76 The global food supply system we currently rely upon is unstable. 77 Changes to production practices are necessary to increase resilience to threats. 78 Retailers are ideally placed to mandate for change across large areas. 79 Resilience in our food supply requires the restoration of ecosystem services.
Sustaining multiple ecosystem services across a landscape requires an understanding of how consistently services are shaped by different categories of land uses. Yet, this understanding is generally constrained by the availability of fineresolution data for multiple services across large areas and the spatial variability of land-use effects on services. We systematically surveyed published literature for New Zealand (1970Zealand ( -2015 to quantify the supply of 17 non-production services across 25 land covers (as a proxy for land use). We found a consistent trade-off in the services supplied by anthropogenic land covers with a high production intensity (e.g. cropping) versus those with extensive or no production. By contrast, forest cover was not associated with any distinct patterns of service supply. By drawing on existing research findings, we reveal complementarity and redundancy (potentially influencing resilience) in service supply from different land covers. This will guide practitioners in shaping land systems that sustainably support human well-being.
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