A cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) based enzymatic biosensor was developed with the incorporation of a first-generation copper polypropyleneimine (CuPPI) metallodendrimer for the detection of anti-tuberculosis (anti-TB) drugs. The development of an electrochemical phenotype biosensor for this purpose is still vital since it aids in the ongoing fight against TB by determining metabolic profile. This allows TB treatment to be tailored on an individual patient basis, minimise adverse drug reactions and improve quality of life in TB patients. This simple biosensor was constructed via physical adsorption of CuPPI onto a gold electrode with subsequent electrostatic attachment of CYP3A4. The biosensor was successful in detecting all four first line anti-TB drugs i. e. isoniazid, ethambutol, pyrazinamide and rifampicin with limits of detection ranging from 0.02244 to 0.1072 nM in 0.1 M phosphate buffer. The developed biosensor was then applied towards "real samples" in the form of spiked synthetic urine and plasma. Calibration curves were carried out in the complex matrices, which were diluted with 0.1 M PB. These yielded good LOD in the range of ultra-low micromolar concentration i. e. 0.165-0.884 μM across all drugs. Recovery studies were also successful when detecting the real tablets in both plasma and urine with results ranging from 91.5 % to 108.5 %.
This study reports on the novel and simple green method involving the use of apple (Malus domestica) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) extracts in the synthesis of electroactive layers of silver nanoparticles|graphene oxide (AgNPs|GO) and zinc oxide nanoparticles|graphene oxide (ZnONPs|GO). The surface morphology of the green synthesized nanocomposites was studied using High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HRTEM), High-Resolution Scanning Electron Microscopy (HRSEM) while the elemental analysis was studied using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy and X-Ray diffraction (XRD) and their optical properties were further characterised using Ultraviolet Spectroscopy (UV-vis). The electrochemical studies of these nanocomposites were achieved using cyclic voltammetry (CV) where an increase in electron conductivity of the AgNPs|GO and ZnONPs|GO nanocomposite was observed. Comparatively, the silver nanoparticulate-based platforms were observed to have superior electrochemical properties as opposed to the zinc oxide-based platform. The observed electrochemical activities of the synthesized nanocomposites are a good indication of their suitability as electroactive platforms towards the development of electrochemical sensors. Electrochemical sensors are popular in the Electrochemistry field because they may be developed using different methods in order to suit their intended analytes. As such, the synthesis of a variety of electrochemical platforms provides researchers with a vast range of options to select from for the detection of analytes.
Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are one of the most commonly prescribed classes of antidepressants used for the treatment of moderate to severe depressive disorder, personality disorders and various phobias. This class of antidepressants was created with improved margins of safety. However, genetic polymorphism may be responsible for the high variability in patients’ responses to treatment, ranging from failure to delayed therapeutic responses to severe adverse effects of treatment. It is crucial that the appropriate amount of SSRI drugs is administered to ensure the optimum therapeutic efficacy and intervention to minimise severe and toxic effects in patients, which may be the result of accidental and deliberate cases of poisoning. Determining SSRI concentration in human fluids and the environment with high sensitivity, specificity and reproducibility, and at a low cost and real-time monitoring, is imperative. Electrochemical sensors with advanced functional materials have drawn the attention of researchers as a result of these advantages over conventional techniques. This review article aims to present functional materials such as polymers, carbon nanomaterials, metal nanomaterials as well as composites for surface modification of electrodes for sensitive detection and quantification of SSRIs, including fluoxetine, citalopram, paroxetine, fluvoxamine and sertraline. Sensor fabrication, sensor/analyte interactions, design rationale and properties of functional material and the electrocatalytic effect of the modified electrode on SSRI detection are discussed.
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