This article presents a developmental model of counselor supervision that conceptualizes the training process as a sequence of identifiable stages through which the trainee progresses. The progress of the supervisee is described from the entry level counselor through the advanced master counselor stage. Characteristics of supervisees at each of the four levels of the model are discussed as well as the appropriate supervision environments that encourage development to the next highest level. The supervisor skills of discrimination and the creating of environments are discussed in relation to the characteristics of supervisees and the appropriate environments for the supervision process. Suggestions are offered for future directions of supervision research.

Supervision is a domain of professional practice conducted by many psychologists but for which formal training and standards have been largely neglected. In this article, supervision is proposed as a core competency area in psychology for which a number of elements reflecting specific knowledge, skills, and values must be addressed to ensure adequate training and professional development of the trainee. Supra-ordinate factors of supervision viewed as permeating all aspects of professional development are proposed. These include the perspective that professional development is a lifelong, cumulative process requiring attention to diversity in all its forms, as well as legal and ethical issues, personal and professional factors, and self- and peer-assessment. A competencies framework is presented with particular elements representing knowledge (e.g., about psychotherapy, research, etc.), skills (including supervising modalities, relationship skills, etc.), values (e.g., responsibility for the clients and supervisee rests with supervisor, etc.), and meta-knowledge. Social contextual factors and issues of education and training, assessment, and future directions also are addressed, with specific elements listed. Suggestions for future work in this area are addressed, including the need to refine further and operationalize competences, develop clear expectations for accreditation and licensure regarding supervision competencies, and expand the description of developmental levels of supervisors from minimal to optimal competence. This is one of a series of articles published together in this issue of the Journal of Clinical Psychology. Several other articles that resulted from the Competencies Conference: Future Directions in Education and Credentialing in Professional Psychology will appear in Professional Psychology: Research and Practice and The Counseling Psychologist.

Using a factorial experiment and a persuasive communications paradigm, we examined the relative contributions of self-efficacy expectancy, outcome expectancy, and outcome value (importance) in influencing and predicting behavioral intentions. Outcome expectancy was manipulated independent of self-efficacy expectancy and had a main effect on behavioral intentions, but self-efficacy expectancy failed to produce a main effect on intentions. The outcome-value manipulation also had a main effect on intentions, although problems with the manipulation check made interpretations of this effect problematic. Correlational data revealed that assessments of self-efficacy expectancy, outcome expectancy, and outcome value were all significant and roughly equivalent predictors of intentions. Each component also significantly contributed to the other two components combined in the prediction of behavioral intentions.Self-efficacy theory maintains that all processes of psychological change operate through the alteration of the individual's sense of personal mastery or efficacy (Bandura, 1977(Bandura, , 1982.According to this theory, psychological changes achieved through different methods and techniques can be explained and predicted by an evaluation of changes in the individual's expectations of self-efficacy-the belief that one is or is not capable of performing a behavior or set of behaviors. This theory also maintains that an expectancy held by a person concerning mastery or coping can be viewed as two related expectancies: an outcome expectancy, the belief that a given behavior will or will not lead to a given outcome; and a self-efficacy expectancy, the belief that the person is or is not capable of performing the requisite behavior.Self-efficacy theory can be viewed as belonging to the larger family of psychological theories commonly referred to as expectancy-value theories. These theories maintain that the tendency to perform a behavior is the product of the reinforcement value of the expected outcome and the expectation that a specified behavior or behaviors will produce that outcome. The expectancy component in expectancy-value theories (e.g., Bolles,

There has been a recent increase in interest in defining and describing the competencies for professional practice in psychology. Perhaps the most important mechanism for enabling the acquisition of competencies is the process of supervision. This article takes the position, based on a review of relevant research in supervision and the author's experiences, that developmental theories of supervision have stimulated considerable research and provide a direction for future work in research and practice. It is argued that the most detailed of these theories, the Integrated Developmental Model, provides a useful framework for understanding how supervisees change over time and how various supervision environments (broadly) and supervision interventions (specifically) can enhance or detract from the development of professional competencies.

Despite the growing empirical evidence for developmental models of supervision, the need for reliable, valid assessment procedures for identifying a trainee's level of development exists. This study sought to address this need by administering an instrument designed to assess constructs relevant to Stoltenberg and Delworth's (1987) Integrated Developmental Model (IDM) to counseling and clinical psychology trainees of varying levels of graduate education, counseling, and supervision experience. Preliminary data provided support for the IDM and suggested construct validity for the Supervisee Levels Questionnaire-Revised because scores on the instrument differed for certain trainee groups who varied in amount of previous training and experience. BRIAN W MCNEILL received hisPhD from Texas Tech University in 1984. He is currently an associate professor in the Counseling Psychology program at Washington State University. CAL D. STOLTENBERG received his doctorate from the University of Iowa in 1981. He is currently the chairperson of the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Oklahoma. JOHN S. C. ROMANS received his doctorate from the University of Kansas in 1990 and is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Applied Behavioral Sciences at