In this study, we investigated how multiple types of knowledge and beliefs, along with holding an early childhood-related degree and teaching experience, were linked to amounts of early childhood educators' language and literacy instruction. Quantile regression was used to estimate associations between these variables along a continuum of language and literacy instruction for 222 early childhood educators. In general, low levels of language-and literacy-related instruction were observed; however, the use of quantile regression afforded unique insight into the associations of knowledge, beliefs, education, and teaching experience with instruction when levels of instruction were sufficient. These findings would not have been visible with traditional, linear regression models. Specifically, two types of knowledge were examined: disciplinary-related content knowledge about the structure of language and knowledge for use in teaching language and literacy to young children. digitalcommons.unl.edu

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Recently, single-case research has been recognized as an approach for establishing evidence-based practices (Horner et al., 2005;Kratochwill et al., 2010). As the implications of single-case research become increasingly far reaching and focused on socially meaningful outcomes, single-case researchers are expected to not only document a functional relation between manipulating the independent variable and change in the dependent variable, but also to demonstrate that the independent variable under investigation is perceived as socially acceptable and feasible by typical stakeholders (Horner et al., 2005). In other words, single-case researchers may be able to demonstrate sizable effects, but if the intervention is not well received by educators, students, and their families, it is unlikely that the intervention will be adopted or maintained.Applied behavior analysis, and more recently positive behavior support, emphasize the importance of valued clinical outcomes as an essential feature of behavioral research and practice (e.g., Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968;E. G. Carr et al., 2002). In his seminal article addressing the importance of social validity, Montrose Wolf (1978) argued that making socially meaningful contributions through research involves investigating the relationship between what is objectively measured and how it is perceived by its consumers. In the 1970s, the practice of asking participants to report what they think was novel and counterintuitive to the singular focus on directly observable and measurable behaviors that was typical in applied behavior analytic research. Nonetheless, it had become apparent that if practices were going to be adopted, they needed to be not only effective but also well regarded. To avoid making assumptions about the subjective judgments of consumers, researchers needed to begin using methods to assess social validity. Wolf (1978) therefore outlined what he termed three levels of social validity: (a) Are the specific behavioral goals really what society wants? (b) Do the ends justify the means? That is, do the participants, caregivers and other consumers consider the treatment procedures acceptable? and (c) Are the consumers satisfied with the results? . . . including any unpredicted ones? (p. 207) 490809R SEXXX10.

Professional development (PD) is a potentially important mechanism for enhancing classroom practices and children's learning. In this large-scale randomized controlled trial, we examined the effectiveness of language and literacy PD, with and without coaching, offered at scale to early childhood educators (n ϭ 546) across 1 state. Relative to the comparison condition, PD with coaching showed a small impact on the quantity of phonological awareness instruction, and PD with and without coaching impacted the quality of phonological awareness and writing instruction. PD did not impact children's (n ϭ 1,953, M age ϭ 4.53) emergent literacy skills, as measured by the research team, or kindergarten readiness, as measured by the state's kindergarten readiness assessment which exclusively focused on language and literacy skills. Although we can only speculate as to why this at-scale, state-sponsored PD did not realize intended impacts, these findings, as coupled with those from the literature, raise critical questions concerning current understandings of PD and the ability to achieve desired effects when implemented at scale. Educational Impact and Implications StatementIn the field of education, professional development is intended to improve classroom instruction and children's learning. However, we have a limited understanding as to its effects, especially when used at scale with large numbers of educators. In this study, we examined the language and literacy professional development offered to early childhood educators by one state. We found that the professional development affected only a few aspects of classroom literacy instruction and did not affect young children's literacy learning. These results suggest that, in order to be effective, at-scale professional development may require greater attention to design and implementation and highlight the need for pilot work regarding effects of professional development prior to large-scale investments.

In this study, we provide a contemporary examination of the similarities and differences between early childhood general educators (ECEs) and early childhood special educators (ECSEs) within a theoretically driven model that accounted for the associations of beliefs and knowledge with practice. We used structural equation modeling to examine the associations among these multifaceted constructs, controlling for background characteristics, for 147 ECEs and 78 ECSEs. Univariate analyses revealed differences between ECEs and ECSEs on measures of beliefs, knowledge, practice, and background characteristics; yet, when examining these variables in a complex model, this pattern of difference did not hold. ECSE status was predictive of differences in knowledge and one component of practice; however, in most cases, the differences between ECEs and ECSEs were not statistically significant. Implications of the findings and the importance of examining the associations of beliefs, knowledge, and practice within a complex system are discussed.

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Delays in young children's communication have been associated with enduring academic and social challenges (Kaiser & Roberts, 2011). Specifically, children identified with communication delays are at risk of manifesting behavioral challenges as well as delays in school readiness and literacy development (Horner,

This project is a community case study implemented by local professionals and caregivers to improve the quality of caregiving in two Kazakhstan institutions for infants and toddlers. Local professionals first received comprehensive training by an international team experienced in relevant research-based practices, and then the locals trained institutional staff. Over nearly 2 years, one institution progressively implemented changes in three wards and the other institution in one ward. The changes attempted to make the institution more family-like (e.g., smaller groups and fewer and more consistent caregivers) and caregivers behave more parent-like (e.g., more warm, sensitive, responsive interactions and relationships) without changing nutrition or medical care. Of the 45 children given some exposure to the emerging new wards, 11 experienced the fully revised wards for at least 4 months during their first 2 years of life. They displayed substantial increases in their physical growth, especially those entering in their first year of life, in contrast to the unchanging developmental patterns of 165 children who were reared in the two institutions before the ward changes were made. Physical growth is a commonly used standard of developmental well-being in institutions. Research shows it is sensitive to infants' psychosocial environment, and improvements in physical growth are related to children's cognitive and social-emotional development. Although this pilot community case study had only a few infants fully exposed to the complete ward changes and lacked characteristics of a research experiment, these results are consistent with children's developmental improvements reported in larger scientific studies of similar interventions. This project is an example of how some research-based practices are likely to be implemented in communities in the future. Specifically, it shows that local communities can successfully improve the rearing conditions within institutions, which improve the children's development, and may contribute to the success of their subsequent foster placement and adoption.