The inflammatory toxicity of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a component of bacterial cell walls, is driven by the adaptor proteins myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) and Toll-interleukin 1 receptor domain-containing adapter inducing interferon-beta (TRIF), which together mediate signaling by the endotoxin receptor Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). Monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) is a low-toxicity derivative of LPS with useful immunostimulatory properties, which is nearing regulatory approval for use as a human vaccine adjuvant. We report here that, in mice, the low toxicity of MPLA's adjuvant function is associated with a bias toward TRIF signaling, which we suggest is likely caused by the active suppression, rather than passive loss, of proinflammatory activity of this LPS derivative. This finding may have important implications for the development of future vaccine adjuvants.

Cellular stress or apoptosis triggers the release of ATP, ADP and other nucleotides into the extracellular space. Extracellular nucleotides function as autocrine and paracrine signalling molecules by activating cell-surface P2 purinergic receptors that elicit pro-inflammatory immune responses. Over time, extracellular nucleotides are metabolized to adenosine, leading to reduced P2 signalling and increased signalling through anti-inflammatory adenosine (P1 purinergic) receptors. Here, we review how local purinergic signalling changes over time during tissue responses to injury or disease, and we discuss the potential of targeting purinergic signalling pathways for the immunotherapeutic treatment of ischaemia, organ transplantation, autoimmunity or cancer.

The immune system plays an important role in regulating tumor growth and metastasis. For example, classical monocytes promote tumorigenesis and cancer metastasis; however, how nonclassical “patrolling” monocytes interact with tumors is unknown. Here we show that patrolling monocytes are enriched in the microvasculature of the lung and reduce tumor metastasis to lung in multiple mouse metastatic tumor models. Nr4a1-deficient mice, which specifically lack patrolling monocytes, showed increased lung metastasis in vivo. Transfer of Nr4a1-proficient patrolling monocytes into Nr4a1-deficient mice prevented tumor invasion in lung. Patrolling monocytes established early interactions with metastasizing tumor cells, scavenged tumor material from the lung vasculature and promoted natural killer cell recruitment and activation. Thus, patrolling monocytes contribute to cancer immunosurveillance and may be targets for cancer immunotherapy.

High concentrations of adenosine in tumor microenvironments inhibit anti-tumor cytotoxic lymphocyte responses. Although T cells express inhibitory adenosine A2A receptors (A2ARs) that suppress their activation and inhibit immune killing of tumors, a role for myeloid-cell A2ARs in suppressing the immune response to tumors has yet to be investigated. In this study we show that the growth of transplanted syngeneic B16F10 melanoma or Lewis lung carcinoma cells is slowed in Adora2af/f–LysMCre+/− mice, which selectively lack myeloid A2ARs. Reduced melanoma growth is associated with significant increases in MHCII and IL-12 expression in tumor-associated macrophages and with > 90% reductions in IL-10 expression in tumor-associated macrophages, dendritic cells and Ly6C+ or Ly6G+ myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Myeloid deletion of A2ARs significantly increases CD44 expression on tumor-associated T cells and NK cells. Depletion of CD8+ T cells or NK cells in tumor-bearing mice indicates that both cell types initially contribute to slowing melanoma growth in mice lacking myeloid A2A receptors, but tumor suppression mediated by CD8+ T cells is more persistent. Myeloid-selective A2AR deletion significantly reduces lung metastasis of melanomas that express luciferase (for in vivo tracking) and ovalbumin (as a model antigen). Reduced metastasis is associated with increased numbers and activation of NK cells and antigen specific CD8+ T cells in lung infiltrates. Overall the findings indicate that myeloid cell A2ARs have direct myelosupressive effects that indirectly contribute to the suppression of T cells and NK cells in primary and metastatic tumor microenvironments. The results indicate that tumor-associated myeloid cells, including macrophages, DCs and MDSCs all express immunosuppressive A2ARs that are potential targets of adenosine receptor blockers to enhance immune killing of tumors.

The accumulation of high levels of adenosine in tumors activates A2A and A2B receptors on immune cells and inhibits their ability to suppress tumor growth. Deletion of A2AARs has been reported to activate anti-tumor T cells, stimulates DC function and inhibits angiogenesis. Here we evaluated the effects of intermittent intratumor injection of a non-selective adenosine receptor antagonist, aminophylline (AMO, theophylline ethylenediamine) and, for the first time, a selective A2BAR antagonist, ATL801. AMO and ATL801 slowed the growth of MB49 bladder and 4T1 breast tumors in syngeneic mice, and reduced by 85% metastasizes of breast cancer cells from mammary fat to lung. Based on experiments with A2AAR−/− or A2BAR−/− mice, the effect of AMO injection was unexpectedly attributed to A2BAR and not to A2AAR blockade. AMO and ATL801 significantly increased tumor levels of IFNγ and the interferon-inducible chemokine CXCL10, which is a ligand for CXCR3. This was associated with an increase in activated tumor-infiltrating CXCR3+ T cells and a decrease in endothelial cell precursors within tumors. Tumor growth inhibition by AMO or ATL801 was eliminated in CXCR3−/− mice and in RAG1−/− mice that lack mature T cells. In RAG1−/− mice A2BAR deletion enhanced CD86 expression on CD11b- DCs. Bone marrow chimera experiments demonstrated that CXCR3 and A2BAR expression on bone marrow cells are required for the anti-tumor effects of AMO. The data suggest that blockade of A2BARs enhances DC activation and CXCR3-dependent anti-tumor responses.

ATP-binding Cassette Transporter G1 (ABCG1) promotes cholesterol efflux from cells and regulates intracellular cholesterol homeostasis. Here, we demonstrate a role of ABCG1 as a mediator of tumor immunity. Abcg1−/− mice have dramatically suppressed subcutaneous MB49-bladder carcinoma and B16-melanoma growth and prolonged survival. We show that reduced tumor growth in Abcg1−/− mice is myeloid cell-intrinsic and is associated with a phenotypic shift of the macrophages from a tumor-promoting M2 to a tumor-fighting M1 within the tumor. Abcg1−/− macrophages exhibit an intrinsic bias toward M1 polarization with increased NF-κB activation and direct cytotoxicity for tumor cells in vitro. Overall, our study demonstrates that absence of ABCG1 inhibits tumor growth through modulation of macrophage function within the tumor and illustrates a link between cholesterol homeostasis and cancer.

Adenosine A 2A receptor (A 2A R) blockade enhances innate and adaptive immune responses. However, mouse genetic studies have shown that A 2A R deletion does not inhibit the growth of all tumor types. In the current study, we showed that growth rates for ectopic melanoma and bladder tumors are increased in Adora2a À/À mice within 2 weeks of tumor inoculation. A 2A R deletion in the host reduced numbers of CD8 þ T cells and effector-memory differentiation of all T cells. To examine intrinsic functions in T cells, we generated mice harboring a T-cell-specific deletion of A 2A R. In this host strain, tumor-bearing mice displayed increased growth of ectopic melanomas, decreased numbers of tumor-associated T cells, reduced effector-memory differentiation, and reduced antiapoptotic IL7Ra (CD127) expression on antigen-experienced cells. Intratumoral pharmacologic blockade similarly reduced CD8 þ T-cell density within tumors in wild-type hosts. We found that A 2A R-proficient CD8 þ T cells specific for melanoma cells displayed a relative survival advantage in tumors. Thus, abrogating A 2A R signaling appeared to reduce IL7R expression, survival, and differentiation of T cells in the tumor microenvironment. One implication of these results is that the antitumor effects of A 2A R blockade that can be mediated by activation of cytotoxic T cells may be overcome in some tumor microenvironments as a result of impaired T-cell maintenance and effector-memory differentiation. Thus, our findings imply that the efficacious application of A 2A R inhibitors for cancer immunotherapy may require careful dose optimization to prevent activation-induced T-cell death in tumors.

TLR4 stimulation by lipopolysaccharide can cause both MAL/MyD88-and TRAM/TRIF (Toll IL-1 receptor domaincontaining adaptor-inducing IFN␤)-dependent signaling events. Monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA), a low toxicity derivative of endotoxic lipopolysaccharide, enhances antibody responses, T cell expansion, and recall responses against antigens without causing excessive inflammatory side effects. Previously, we proposed that TRIF-biased activation of TLR4 by MPLA is responsible for its reduced toxicity while retaining potent adjuvant effects. However, some TRIF-associated genes, such as MCP-1, are only weakly expressed, and some MyD88-associated inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor ␣ and interleukin-10, are strongly activated after MPLA stimulation despite weak NF-B but strong IRF3 activation. We now report that synthetic derivatives of MPLA retained TRIF bias as compared with synthetic diphosphoryl lipid A, indicating a change in a single phosphoryl group is sufficient for TRIF-biased TLR4 stimulation. We extend our previous observations by showing that sMLA induces strong p38 MAPK but weak JNK activation, resulting in high IP-10 (interferon-inducible protein 10), tumor necrosis factor ␣, and interleukin-10 but low MCP-1 transcript levels. Results of this study identify a novel biochemical mechanism for regulation of sMLA-induced gene expression.