This study examines the governmental accounting practice in the Near East during the Il-Khan Dynasty period (1120–1350 A.D.). The survey is based on a handwritten manuscript, Risale-i Felekiyye. The accounting system introduced in the Risale-i Felekiyye is an elaborate governmental accounting system. The system was based on seven major books and a number of special journals. Documents used in the system formed the basis for recording events in the books. Furthermore, the system included concepts and rules for accounting and resulted in a final report. This accounting system emerged primarily from social and economic necessities caused by agricultural and fiscal reforms introduced by Ghazan Khan in 1295–1304. As a result of these reforms, budgeting practices and accounting regulation by the state were introduced to control state tax revenues and expenditures and to prevent fraud. These regulations introduced the use of a single monetary unit for recording, the use of an accounting fiscal period, duality, classification, substance, procedural rules which introduced a bilateral journal entry form, agency account rules, and correction and control rules. Also the rule of “revenues have to be equal to expenditures” presented itself as a balance sheet identity equation. These regulations, however, were not based on the accrual principle; instead, a cash basis of accounting was the recognized practice. The study concludes that the rudiments of double-entry accounting were practiced in the Near East and were developed independently from the accounting practices used in the West.
RESUMENMuchos estudios recientes han afirmado que China integra en su sistema contable sus reglas tradicionales, sus intereses culturales y su estilo de vida. La "cultura" sería el punto dominante en su sistema contable. Hofstede, Gray, Mueller y otros investigadores empíricos de la contabilidad, que enfatizan la influencia de los efectos culturales en la configuración de los sistemas contables nacionales, sostienen que la Contabilidad China ha sido dominada por la "Cultura" China.Este trabajo presenta tres de entre las variables culturales chinas, a saber, Confucianismo, Feng Shui, Budismo, Yin-Yang, etc., que han marcado los comportamientos y las técnicas contables chinas. En China, el sistema contable se basó tradicionalmente en las prácticas confucianistas y en la antigua sabiduría; estos elementos todavía influyen en el sistema actual. En este artículo se estudian las influencias desde una perspectiva histórica en relación con las variables culturales chinas. Las influencias examinadas se centran en los metódos de la teneduría de libros, en las prácticas contables, en la información contable, etc.La evidencia suministrada por la literatura indica que, a pesar de los cambios en los regímenes de gobierno y en los estilos de gestión empresarial en China, las características principales de las influencias culturales sobre la contabilidad han sobrevivido. De este modo, la polaridad Yin-Yang todavía equilibra la contabilidad china. La lógica económica china se ha transformado para adaptarse a las prácticas de mercado, pero el misticismo chino ha mantenido su lógica en la República Popular China ABSTRACTMany recent studies have argued that China integrates its traditional rules, cultural interests and its life style into its accounting system. "Culture" is the main point for their accounting system. Hofstede, Gray, Mueller, and some other empiricist accounting researchers who emphasize the influence of cultural effects on national accounting improvements claim that Chinese Accounting has been dominated by Chinese "Culture". This paper presents three Chinese cultural variables (e.g. Confucianism, Feng Shui, Buddhism, YinYang, etc.) that have shaped Chinese accounting behaviors and techniques. In China, the Chinese accounting system was traditionally based on Confucian practices and ancient wisdom; these elements still influence the current system. In this paper, the influences are discussed from a historical perspective with regard to cultural variables in China. The influences studied focused on bookkeeping methods, accounting practices, accounting information, etc.The evidence from the literature indicates that regardless of changes in government regimes, economic management styles in China the influence of culture on accounting, its basic characteristics have survived. For instance Yin-Yang polarity has still balanced Chinese accounting; Chinese economic logic metamorphosed to market-oriented model practices, but Chinese mysticism has maintained its logic on the People's Republic of China.
Este artículo intenta explicar los criterios que sustentan la idea de que la contabilidad china ha sido conformada durante el pasado siglo con arreglo a factores culturales, económicos y políticos. Asimismo se propone estudiar los fenómenos históricos experimentados por la contabilidad china en el transcurso de los años, y evaluar comparativa y críticamente los efectos culturales de los mismos con las transformaciones políticas y económicas que han tenido influencia en el desarrollo de la contabilidad china.La sociología de la ciencia es el elemento determinante para analizar las transformacionesexperimentadas por la contabilidad. Los factores políticos están referidos a factores culturales. En una primera época vinieron determinados bajo la presión del régimen comunista y de un gobierno de dirección central; en una segunda época se configuraron siguiendo el modelo de liberalización y de economía de mercado. El gobierno llamó a este modelo: “Política de puertas abiertas”.En los últimos años y en época reciente esta política ha conservado su influencia y ha forzado al gobierno chino a promulgar una nueva normativa contable en armonía con los principios contables internacionales. El sistema contable chino está ahora mucho más cerca de los “International Accounting Standards” de lo que estaban las prácticas del pasado; pero, a pesar de ello, conserva sus características y sus rasgos colectivistas y conservadores tradicionales. Los fundamentos culturales son los que sostienen e informan todavía el sector de la contabilidad china.
This paper examines the perceived usefulness and reliability of a set of twenty‐three financial disclosure items, as well as five sources of information, for investment decisions using a sample of eighty‐nine institutional and individual Investors in two Middle Eastern countries, Jordan and Kuwait. Data were collected through questionnaires and were analyzed using parametric and nonparametric statistics to test for differences between the two users groups within each country and between the two countries. The results indicate that there is a somewhat significant difference in the perceived importance of the special financial reports, as a source of information, between Institutional and individual investors in both countries (p ≤ .092). The results also indicate that there is a significant difference in the perceived usefulness of seven items out of twenty three financial items between investors in Jordan and Kuwait (p ≤ .065). However, the difference in the perceived reliability of the items was significant for somewhat different nine items (p ≤ .063).
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