Abstract:The postulate that geothermal energy might be recoverable from strata laterally equivalent to the Fell Sandstone Formation (Carboniferous: Mississippian) beneath Newcastle upon Tyne has been examined by the drilling and testing of the 1821 m deep Newcastle Science Central Deep Geothermal Borehole. This proved 376.5 m of Fell Sandstone Formation below 1400 m, much of which resembled braided river deposits found at outcrop, although some lower portions were reddened and yielded grains of aeolian affinity. Downhole logging after attainment of thermal equilibrium proved a temperature of 73°C at 1740 m, and allowed estimation of heat flow at about 88 mW m −2 . This relatively high value probably reflects deep convective transfer of heat over a distance of >8 km from the North Pennine Batholith, along the Ninety Fathom Fault. The Fell Sandstone traversed by the borehole proved to be of low hydraulic conductivity (c. 7 × 10 −5 m d −1 ). The water that entered the well was highly saline, with a Na-(Ca)-Cl signature similar to other warm waters encountered in the region. It remains for future directional drilling to establish whether sufficient natural fracture permeability can be encountered, or wells stimulated, to support commercial heat production.

The large number of rural water supply boreholes sited and drilled in northern Nigeria during the ground water decade of the eighties has provided much data on the hydrogeology of the Basement regolith and has led to the development of new techniques in locating aquifers. Regolith aquifer characteristics and their dependence on geology and environment are reviewed with particular emphasis on lithology, weathering pattern and fracturing in Bauchi, Kano and Sokoto States. Specific capacity is shown to be related to both lithology and grade of weathering; dry season water levels and frequency of occurrence of successful holes are related to lithology. Water quality data for Kano State show some high nitrate concentrations. The process of borehole siting begins with desk study (records and photointerpretation), then field reconnaissance of lithology, structure, water points, topography and soils. EM traverses and resistivity soundings follow in targeted areas. Maximum regolith thicknesses are estimated from the vertical to horizontal coil (EM) response using computed model graphs for 40 m and 20 m coil spacings. VES measurements at these sites give regolith resistivities, hence some estimate of its suitability as an aquifer. In addition EM traverses have located steeply-dipping fracture zones, dykes and pegmatites and interpretation of these in terms of strike and dip has been aided by results from a computer-controlled modelling system.

This paper was presented at the Identifying Battlefield Finds conference held at Leeds in June 2011.In connection with the work to find the Fulford battlesite, it is recognised that the techniques required to find the site of a conflict are different from those employed to confirm and research a battlesite. Access to museum storeroom collections allowed the surface fragments from the investigation to be interpreted and also revealed that iron was in all probability gathered together and reprocessed immediately after the battle. Thus, hearth debris is a potential pointer to locate other sites because the metal-working sites at Fulford coincided with the area of action of the battle suggested by other, independent avenues of research.keywords Fulford, 1066, metal reprocessing, metal detecting, billets, anvils The contextIn 1066, England was facing two invasions which required King Harold's armies to be split between the north and the south. This was the strategic context for the battle fought at Fulford on 20th September 1066. William, Duke of Normandy, had been poised on the coast of Normandy since the Papal banner arrived in the late summer while Harald, King of Norway, had assembled his substantial force in the early autumn. As a veteran warrior, this was likely to be his last adventure. He had transferred the crown to his son and brought his wife, daughters and another son with him which is a strong indication that he intended to stay.The twin invasions were launched in the autumn at opposite ends of the kingdom of Harold II, who had been selected to take the crown after the death of King Edward in the opening days of 1066.

Surface runoff from upland areas in northern Scotland can be excessively coloured and turbid, making water treatment costs high. In contrast, groundwater has little colour or suspended solids, and has a more stable water quality, therefore treatment needs can be minimal. A number of public water supply schemes based on the development of groundwater in alluvial and glacial deposits are reviewed. These supplies range from major projects such as the 27 Ml/d Spey and 10 Ml/d Fort William schemes to the 0.16 Ml/d supply for Dalwhinnie. It has been demonstrated that yields of up to 2 Ml/d can be achieved from dug wells or boreholes even where the aquifer thickness is limited. Larger yields have been obtained from infiltration galleries and Ranney wells. Future challenges include improved siting techniques to locate thicker and more productive sediments and the avoidance of groundwater containing high iron and/or manganese concentrations.

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