Both prenatal and postnatal parental bonding (i.e., the affective tie from parent to child) have important effects on parental and child functioning. However, research on the continuity and correlates of parental bonding is lacking. Therefore, the goal of the present study was to examine the stability of bonding levels and to explore distinct bonding patterns with a latent class analysis. Moreover, the correlates of these bonding patterns in the parental-, child-, and contextual domain were studied. Levels of maternal (N = 370) and paternal (N = 292) bonding and potential correlates were assessed at 26 weeks of pregnancy, 6 months, and 24 months postpartum. Results showed moderate stability of bonding from pregnancy to toddlerhood. For both mothers and fathers, 4 distinct bonding patterns were found. Parents with low bonding patterns were characterized by increased anxiety and parenting stress, less partner support, less adaptive personality profiles, and children with difficult temperament. These findings indicate the importance of monitoring young children's parents with poor levels of bonding as their bonding patterns remain stable from pregnancy until toddlerhood and because those parents experience problems in multiple domains.

Early executive functioning is an important predictor for future development of children’s cognitive skills and behavioral outcomes. Parenting behavior has proven to be a key environmental determinant of child executive functioning. However, the association of parental affect and cognitions directed to the child with child executive functioning has been understudied. Therefore, in the present study we examine the associations between parental bonding (i.e., the affective tie from parent to child), parenting stress, and child executive functioning. At 26 weeks of pregnancy, and at 6 months and 24 months postpartum the quality of the maternal (N = 335) and paternal (N = 261) bond with the infant was assessed. At 24 months, postnatal parenting stress and child executive functioning were measured by means of parent-report questionnaires. Results indicated that for both mothers and fathers feelings of bonding negatively predicted experienced parenting stress over time. In addition, for both parents a negative indirect effect of bonding on child executive functioning problems was found via experienced parenting stress. These findings indicate the importance of monitoring parents who experience a low level and quality of early parent-child bonding, as this makes them vulnerable to parenting stress, consequently putting their children at risk for developing executive functioning problems.

ABBREVIATIONSa-AASA Alpha-aminoadipic semialdehyde PDE Pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy WMA White matter abnormalities AIM The long-term outcome of the Dutch pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy cohort and correlations between patient characteristics and follow-up data were retrospectively studied.METHOD Fourteen patients recruited from a national reference laboratory were included (four males, 10 females, from 11 families; median age at assessment 6y; range 2y 6mo-16y). The following data were retrieved: sex; age at seizure onset; age at the start of pyridoxine therapy; level of urinary alpha-aminoadipic semialdehyde; antiquitin mutations; developmental milestones; evaluation of neurocognitive functioning and school career; magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) assessments.

This review provides an overview of results that have been obtained in studies using the Working Model of the Child Interview (WMCI). The WMCI is a structured interview that assesses parents' internal working models of the relationship with their young children. From the current infant mental health perspective, evaluating the quality of parents' representations about the infant-parent relationship is the main focus in the assessment and treatment of infants and their parents. Empirical quantitative studies (N = 24 articles) in which the WMCI was used for data collection were used for analysis. The distribution of balanced, disengaged, and distorted representations differed among various study populations. Parents' internal representations as reflected in their narratives about their child are affected by various factors such as maternal, child, and demographic characteristics. The WMCI is a valid and useful clinical and research tool that can be used in future studies examining the role of parental representations in infant development.

Positive attachment experiences during infancy are linked to positive developmental outcomes of children later in life. The parent–infant relationship does not start upon the birth of the child, but already evolves during pregnancy. In this exploratory study, fathers’ experiences during pregnancy are investigated, focusing on their relationship with the unborn baby. At 26 weeks gestational age, expectant fathers from a Dutch community-based sample (N = 301) completed questionnaires concerning feelings of attachment to the fetus and psychological well-being. The semistructured Working Model of the Child Interview was conducted to assess the “meaning” the unborn child has to the father (i.e., the internal representation of the fetus). Results show that the quality of fathers’ prenatal attachment and their representations of the fetus were interrelated. Fathers who reported a higher quality of prenatal attachment were more likely to have balanced representations of their unborn children, whereas fathers with a lower quality of attachment were more likely to show disengaged representations. Furthermore, the quality of fathers’ self-reported prenatal attachment was higher when fathers experienced fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety during pregnancy, when they were younger, and when they expected their first child. These factors were not significantly related to fathers’ internal representations of the fetus. Further research is needed to examine the effects of the prenatal father–infant relationship on postnatal father–child attachment, infant behavior, and infant development.