Evapotranspiration (ET) by turfgrass in urban environments is site specific and can vary considerably from what would be predicted from regional climate. A large degree of heterogeniety exists in residential microclimate and lawn management practices. The relative importance of these factors needs evaluation to aid in planning for efficient use of municipal water, half of which is applied to lawns in some western areas. This study, using small lysimeters, evaluated the relative effects of mowing height, N fertility, shading, grass species, and soil composition on ET. Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L. var. ‘Merion’) mowed 5 cm used 15% more water than grass mowed at 2 cm. Thirteen percent more water was used when 4 kg/1000m2 of N was applied each month during spring and summer compared to only one application for the season, applied in the spring. Evapotranspiration by grass in 1979 was essentially the same whether growing on a clay soil or on a sand‐peat mixture; however, a 6% decrease occurred for the soil system in 1980. Evapotranspiration increased linearly with solar radiation when an advective component of energy, accounting for 35% of ET, was subtracted from all solar treatments. Kentucky bluegrass and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb. var. ‘Rebel’) which are cool‐season grasses, used over 20% more water than bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon L. X Cynodon transvaalensis Davy var. ‘Tifway’) and buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides Nutt) which are warm‐season grasses.

In the arid west, deficit irrigation has contributed significantly to efficient utilization of water resources. In order to understand possible benefits of deficit irrigation in turfgrass management, yield must be defined in terms of gain from water expended. Turfgrass quality influences the aesthetic appeal and physical comfort of urban environments. The effect of deficit irrigation on turfgrass quality was studied using smalllysimeters where root systems were confined and evapotranspiration (ET) was limited to the amount of irrigation. In most cases there was a sharp change in slope of the quality vs. ET relationship for turfgrass. Kentucky bluegrass (Poapratensis L. var. 'Merion') decreased about 10% in quality with an irrigation schedule providing up to a 27% ET deficit. Larger deficits resulted in greater relative decreases in quality. When ET was maintained at greater than 30% deficits, the quality rating of Kentucky bluegrass was lower if mowed at 2 em than when mowed at 5 em. When N fertility was low, maximum ET and maximum quality were decreased, but the response of quality to irrigation deficits greater than 27% was similar. The response of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb. var. 'Rebel') to deficit irrigation was similar to that of Kentucky bluegrass. Buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides (Nutt.) Engem.), however, responded with notable differences. Decreasing ET also had an effect on microclimate. Turfgrass canopy temperature increased 1.7°C for each 10% decrease in irrigation up to 70% decrease suggesting that, during summer months, if irrigation is limited, the effect on urban climate may become a concern.----------------

Incorporating trees into pastures may alter forage nutritive value. The objective of this study was to determine nutritive value in response to trees and slope position in an emulated (no animals) silvopasture. In 1995, black walnut (Juglans nigra L.) and honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos L.) trees were planted within three block plots of predominantly tall fescue (Lolium arundinaceum (Schreb.) Darbysh.) pasture. Soils on the site, (Unison and Braddock) are fine, mixed mesic Typic Hapludults, well drained, with moderately steep slopes (10-25%). Trees were planted down slopes in rows to create low-, medium-, and high-tree densities at shoulder-, mid-, and toeslope positions. Forage from sampling sites (n 5 54) under field treatment combinations was harvested May, June, and July in 2002 and 2003. Concentrations of neutral and acid detergent fiber (NDF, ADF), acid detergent lignin (ADL), crude protein (CP), total nonstructural carbohydrate (TNC) and Ca, P, Mg, and K were determined. Few differences due to treatment were observed for NDF and ADF concentrations. Concentrations of TNC decreased with greater tree density and appeared to follow tree leaf growth. Crude protein concentrations were typically greater under honey locust trees. Forage mineral concentrations frequently were greater with increased tree density. Trees appear to have both positive and negative effects on forage nutritive value, and their effects on animal performance warrants further research.

factors influencing the distribution of prairie species in complex terrain in central Canada (Lieffers and Larkin-Complex topography and varied soil of hill-land pastures create Lieffers, 1987). Slope aspect also influenced diversity microsite conditions that support an array of floristic associations and herbage production patterns. This complicates management for forage of naturalized flora occurring at the site. Henderlong and livestock production because the seasonal distribution and quan-et al. (1976) noted that the seasonal distribution of Kentity of forage vary. Our objective was to determine herbage production tucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) herbage was affected and floristic composition of a hill pasture as a function of site characterby slope aspect. The distribution pattern was a function istics and canopy management. An existing 3-ha hill pasture watershed of plant response to growing conditions interacting with was oversown with white clover (Trifolium repens L.) and orchardthe microsite conditions created by topography. Producgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) and fertilized with reactive phosphate tivity was also influenced by N application, and response (PO 4 ) rock (PR). Replicated plots on each of four sites were clipped varied with slope aspect. Bluegrass yield was more than once (stockpiled), twice (hay harvest), or three times (long rotation) twofold greater on north-facing compared with southannually. Site had a significant impact on cumulative herbage producfacing slopes in northern West Virginia (Bennett et al., tion, whereas the influence of clipping was mixed. The least (1.9 Mg ha Ϫ1 ) amount of herbage production in a given season occurred on a 1976). Deschenes (1966) found that aspect and slope infludrainage area (ND) traversing the pasture. Herbage production inence behavior of grazing livestock and concluded that creased by about 80% with overseeding and PR, but the relative rankmicrosite factors influencing temperature and soil water, ing of production among sites stayed the same. Botanical composition competitive interactions among species, and the influwas also strongly influenced by site, with velvetgrass (Holcus lanatus ence of grazing on plant competition and distribution of L.) predominating in ND and red fescue (Festuca rubra L.) occurring nutrients determined the species present. Topography primarily on the NE site. The stockpiled treatments became domiinfluenced grazing duration at a given site, where duranated by grasses and weeds 4 yr after treatments were imposed, regardtion decreased as slope steepness increased, and was less of site, and were similar to the least productive site (NE-facing) northeast (NE)-facing site and the greatest (4.6 Mg ha Ϫ1 ) in a naturalleast on steep slopes with southern relative to northern in the pasture. Our results suggest that application of amendments to the more productive portions of a site are likely to have greater return.

Winter injury has limited the expansion of commercial blackberry (Genus Rubus, subgenus Rubus) production into more northern latitudes in central and eastern United States. Rowcover (RC) was applied over trailing ‘Boysenberry’ and ‘Siskiyou’ and erect, thornless ‘Triple Crown’ and ‘Apache’ blackberries at Kearneysville, WV (lat. 39.5°N, USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 6b) from 2004 to 2007. The daily minimum temperatures under RC were as much as 5 °F to 10 °F higher at nights after sunny days, but were similar during nights after overcast days. On sunny days, daily maximum temperatures under RC were as much as 28 °F higher than in the open. Under RC, humidity rose more quickly and remained higher during the day than in the open, but was slightly lower at night. Mean vapor pressure deficit in late December, January, February, and early March was 100 to 250 kPa higher under RC than in the open. RC treatment significantly reduced winter injury and increased yield in ‘Siskiyou’ blackberry plants. The winter protection techniques described here would provide substantial benefits for growing blackberries in more northern areas where winter injury frequently causes crop failure.