times Earth's radius (R ⊕ ), indicating that it is intermediate in stature betweenEarth and the ice giants of the Solar System. We find that the planetary mass and radius are consistent with a composition of primarily water enshrouded by a hydrogen-helium envelope that is only 0.05% of the mass of the planet. The atmosphere is probably escaping hydrodynamically, indicating that it has undergone significant evolution during its history.As the star is small and only 13 parsecs away, the planetary atmosphere is amenable to study with current observatories.The recently commissioned MEarth Project 10,11 uses an array of eight identical 40-cm automated telescopes to photometrically monitor 2,000 nearby M dwarfs with masses between

Context. Searching for planets around stars with different masses probes the outcome of planetary formation for different initial conditions. The low-mass M dwarfs are also the most frequent stars in our Galaxy and potentially therefore, the most frequent planet hosts. Aims. This drives observations of a sample of 102 southern nearby M dwarfs, using a fraction of our guaranteed time on the ESO/HARPS spectrograph. We observed 460 hours and gathered 1965 precise (∼ 1 − 3 m/s) radial velocities, spanning the period from Feb. 11th, 2003 to Apr. 1st 2009. Methods. This paper makes available the sample's time series, presents their precision and variability. We apply systematic searches for long-term trends, periodic signals and Keplerian orbits (from 1 to 4 planets). We analyze the subset of stars with detected signals and apply several diagnostics to discriminate whether the observed Doppler shifts are caused by stellar surface inhomogeneities or by the radial pull of orbiting planets. To prepare for the statistical view of our survey we also compute the limits on possible unseen signals, and derive a first estimate of the frequency of planets orbiting M dwarfs. Results. We recover the planetary signals corresponding to 9 planets already announced by our group (Gl 176 b, Gl 581 b, c, d & e, Gl 674 b, Gl 433 b, Gl 667C b and Gl 667C c). We present radial velocities that confirm GJ 849 hosts a Jupiter-mass planet, plus a long-term radial-velocity variation. We also present RVs that precise the planetary mass and period of Gl 832b. We detect longterm RV changes for Gl 367, Gl 680 and Gl 880 betraying yet unknown long-period companions. We identify candidate signals in the radial-velocity time series of 11 other M dwarfs. Spectral diagnostics and/or photometric observations demonstrate however that they are most probably caused by stellar surface inhomogeneities. Finally, we find our survey sensitive to few Earth-mass planets for periods up to several hundred days. We derive a first estimate of the occurrence of M-dwarf planets as a function of their minimum mass and orbital period. In particular, we find that giant planets (m sin i = 100 − 1, 000 M ⊕ ) have a low frequency (e.g. f 1% for P = 1 − 10 d and f = 0.02 +0.03 −0.01 for P = 10 − 100 d), whereas super-Earths (m sin i = 1 − 10 M ⊕ ) are likely very abundant ( f = 0.36 +0.25 −0.10 for P = 1 − 10 d and f = 0.35 +0.45 −0.11 for P = 10 − 100 d). We also obtained η ⊕ = 0.41 +0.54 −0.13 , the frequency of habitable planets orbiting M dwarfs (1 ≤ m sin i ≤ 10 M ⊕ ). For the first time, η ⊕ is a direct measure and not a number extrapolated from the statistic of more massive and/or shorter-period planets.

Since the discovery of the transiting super-Earth CoRoT-7b, several investigations have yielded different results for the number and masses of planets present in the system, mainly owing to the star's high level of activity. We re-observed CoRoT-7 in January 2012 with both HARPS and CoRoT, so that we now have the benefit of simultaneous radial-velocity and photometric data. This allows us to use the offtransit variations in the star's light curve to estimate the radial-velocity variations induced by the suppression of convective blueshift and the flux blocked by starspots. To account for activity-related effects in the radial-velocities which do not have a photometric signature, we also include an additional activity term in the radial-velocity model, which we treat as a Gaussian process with the same covariance properties (and hence the same frequency structure) as the light curve. Our model was incorporated into a Monte Carlo Markov Chain in order to make a precise determination of the orbits of CoRoT-7b and CoRoT-7c. We measure the masses of planets b and c to be 4.73 ± 0.95 M ⊕ and 13.56 ± 1.08 M ⊕ , respectively. The density of CoRoT-7b is (6.61 ± 1.72)(R p /1.58 R ⊕ ) −3 g.cm −3 , which is compatible with a rocky composition. We search for evidence of an additional planet d, identified by previous authors with a period close to 9 days. We are not able to confirm the existence of a planet with this orbital period, which is close to the second harmonic of the stellar rotation at ∼ 7.9 days. Using Bayesian model selection we find that a model with two planets plus activity-induced variations is most favoured.

Context. Atmospheric properties of exoplanets can be constrained with transit spectroscopy. At low spectral resolution, this technique is limited by the presence of clouds. The signature of atomic sodium (Na ), known to be present above the clouds, is a powerful probe of the upper atmosphere, where it can be best detected and characterized at high spectral resolution. Aims. Our goal is to obtain a high-resolution transit spectrum of HD 189733b in the region around the resonance doublet of Na  at 589 nm, to characterize the absorption signature that was previously detected from space at low resolution.Methods. We analyzed archival transit data of HD 189733b obtained with the HARPS spectrograph (R = 115 000) at the ESO 3.6-m telescope. We performed differential spectroscopy to retrieve the transit spectrum and light curve of the planet, implementing corrections for telluric contamination and planetary orbital motion. We compared our results to synthetic transit spectra calculated from isothermal models of the planetary atmosphere.Results. We spectrally resolve the Na  D doublet and measure line contrasts of 0.64 ± 0.07% (D2) and 0.40 ± 0.07% (D1) and FWHMs of 0.52 ± 0.08 Å. This corresponds to a detection at the 10σ level of excess of absorption of 0.32 ± 0.03% in a passband of 2 × 0.75 Å centered on each line. We derive temperatures of 2600 ± 600 K and 3270 ± 330 K at altitudes of 9800 ± 2800 and 12 700 ± 2600 km in the Na  D1 and D2 line cores, respectively. We measure a temperature gradient of ∼0.2 K km −1 in the region where the sodium absorption dominates the haze absorption from a comparison with theoretical models. We also detect a blueshift of 0.16 ± 0.04 Å (4σ) in the line positions. This blueshift may be the result of winds blowing at 8 ± 2 km s −1 in the upper layers of the atmosphere. Conclusions. We demonstrate the relevance of studying exoplanet atmospheres with high-resolution spectrographs mounted on 4-m-class telescopes. Our results pave the way for an in-depth characterization of physical conditions in the atmospheres of many exoplanetary systems with future spectrographs such as ESPRESSO on the VLT or HiReS and METIS on the E-ELT.

Exoplanets down to the size of Earth have been found, but not in the habitable zone--that is, at a distance from the parent star at which water, if present, would be liquid. There are planets in the habitable zone of stars cooler than our Sun, but for reasons such as tidal locking and strong stellar activity, they are unlikely to harbour water-carbon life as we know it. The detection of a habitable Earth-mass planet orbiting a star similar to our Sun is extremely difficult, because such a signal is overwhelmed by stellar perturbations. Here we report the detection of an Earth-mass planet orbiting our neighbour star α Centauri B, a member of the closest stellar system to the Sun. The planet has an orbital period of 3.236 days and is about 0.04 astronomical units from the star (one astronomical unit is the Earth-Sun distance).

The GJ 581 planetary system is already known to harbour three planets, including two super-Earth planets that straddle its habitable zone. We report the detection of an additional planet -GJ 581e -with a minimum mass of 1.9 M ⊕ . With a period of 3.15 days, it is the innermost planet of the system and has a ∼5% transit probability. We also correct our previous confusion about the orbital period of GJ 581d (the outermost planet) with a one-year alias, benefitting from an extended time span and many more measurements. The revised period is 66.8 days, and positions the semi-major axis inside the habitable zone of the low mass star. The dynamical stability of the 4-planet system imposes an upper bound on the orbital plane inclination. The planets cannot be more massive than approximately 1.6 times their minimum mass.

Over the past two years, the search for low-mass extrasolar planets has led to the detection of seven so-called 'hot Neptunes' or 'super-Earths' around Sun-like stars. These planets have masses 5-20 times larger than the Earth and are mainly found on close-in orbits with periods of 2-15 days. Here we report a system of three Neptune-mass planets with periods of 8.67, 31.6 and 197 days, orbiting the nearby star HD 69830. This star was already known to show an infrared excess possibly caused by an asteroid belt within 1 au (the Sun-Earth distance). Simulations show that the system is in a dynamically stable configuration. Theoretical calculations favour a mainly rocky composition for both inner planets, while the outer planet probably has a significant gaseous envelope surrounding its rocky/icy core; the outer planet orbits within the habitable zone of this star.

Context. KELT-9 b exemplifies a newly emerging class of short-period gaseous exoplanets that tend to orbit hot, early type stars – termed ultra-hot Jupiters. The severe stellar irradiation heats their atmospheres to temperatures of ~4000 K, similar to temperatures of photospheres of dwarf stars. Due to the absence of aerosols and complex molecular chemistry at such temperatures, these planets offer the potential of detailed chemical characterization through transit and day-side spectroscopy. Detailed studies of their chemical inventories may provide crucial constraints on their formation process(es) and evolution history. Aims. We aim to search the optical transmission spectrum of KELT-9 b for absorption lines by metals using the cross-correlation technique. Methods. We analysed two transit observations obtained with the HARPS-N spectrograph. We used an isothermal equilibrium chemistry model to predict the transmission spectrum for each of the neutral and singly ionized atoms with atomic numbers between three and 78. Of these, we identified the elements that are expected to have spectral lines in the visible wavelength range and used those as cross-correlation templates. Results. We detect (>5σ) absorption by Na I, Cr II, Sc II and Y II, and confirm previous detections of Mg I, Fe I, Fe II, and Ti II. In addition, we find evidence of Ca I, Cr I, Co I, and Sr II that will require further observations to verify. The detected absorption lines are significantly deeper than predicted by our model, suggesting that the material is transported to higher altitudes where the density is enhanced compared to a hydrostatic profile, and that the material is part of an extended or outflowing envelope. There appears to be no significant blue-shift of the absorption spectrum due to a net day-to-night side wind. In particular, the strong Fe II feature is shifted by 0.18 ± 0.27 km s−1, consistent with zero. Using the orbital velocity of the planet we derive revised masses and radii of the star and the planet: M* = 1.978 ± 0.023 M⊙, R* = 2.178 ± 0.011 R⊙, mp = 2.44 ± 0.70 MJ and Rp = 1.783 ± 0.009 RJ.