Roads often negatively affect terrestrial wildlife, via habitat loss or fragmentation, noise, and direct mortality. We studied moose (Alces alces) behavior relative to a road network, in an area with a history of moose‐vehicle accidents, to determine when moose were crossing roadways or using areas near roads and to investigate if environmental factors were involved in this behavior. We tracked 47 adult moose with Global Positioning System collars in a study area crossed by highways and forest roads. We hypothesized that moose would avoid crossing roads but would make occasional visits to roadsides to feed on sodium‐rich vegetation and avoid biting insects. Further, we expected moose avoidance to be greater for highways than forest roads. We recorded 196,710 movement segments but only observed 328 highway and 1,172 forest‐road crossings (16 and 10 times lower than expected by chance). Moose usually avoided road proximity up to ≥500 m on each side but 20% of collared moose made visits to areas within 50 m of highways, which might have resulted from moose searching for sodium in vegetation and roadside salt pools. In fact, vegetation along highways had higher sodium concentrations and was browsed in similar proportions to vegetation in adjacent forest, despite moose avoidance of these zones. Moose, however, did not use areas near roads more during periods of biting insect abundance. Our results supported the hypothesis of scale‐dependent selection by moose; avoidance of highways at a coarse scale may confer long‐term benefits, whereas selection of highway corridors at finer scales may be part of a strategy to overcome short‐term limiting factors such as sodium deficiency. We found a positive relationship between home‐range size and the proportion of road axes they contained, suggesting that moose either compensated for habitat loss or made specific movements along highways to gather sodium. The presence of sodium along highways likely increases moose‐vehicle accident risks. Removal of salt pools or use of a de‐icing salt other than sodium chloride should render highway surroundings less attractive to moose.
and *SocieÂte de la Faune et des Parcs du Quebec, Direction de la recherche sur la faune, 675 Boulevard ReneÂ-LeÂvesque Est, boõà te 92, QueÂbec, QueÂbec, G1R 5V7 Canada Summary 1. It has been hypothesized that a balanced adult sex ratio is necessary for the full participation of ungulate females in reproduction and therefore high productivity. We tested this general hypothesis by combining two complementary approaches. 2. First, using telemetry (n 60) and annual aerial censuses between 1995 and 1998, we compared two moose Alces alces populations in Quebec, Canada, one non-harvested and the other subject to intensive sport harvesting from the end of September to mid-October. We tested the following predictions for the harvested population: (i) females increase movements and home ranges during the mating period; (ii) the mating system is modi®ed, with the appearance of groups of one male and many females; (iii) subadult males participate in reproduction; (iv) the mating period extends over two to three oestrus cycles; (v) the calving period extends over several months; and (vi) productivity declines. 3. Daily movements and home range sizes during the mating period did not di er between harvested and non-harvested populations. Most groups observed were male±female pairs. Subadult males (1Á5±2Á5 years old) were only observed with females in the harvested population. Mating and calving periods did not di er between populations. The proportion of females that gave birth and the number of calves produced were also comparable in the two populations. 4. Secondly, we also assessed the existence of a relationship between population productivity and percentage of males in various management units of the province of Quebec that were characterized by a wide range in sex ratios. Contrary to prediction (vi), the number of calves per 100 adult females was not related to the percentage of adult males in the population. 5. The participation of young adult males (subadults) in reproduction in our harvested population may have compensated for the lower percentage of adult males, and thus productivity was una ected. We therefore reject the hypothesis that intensive harvesting, at least at the level we observed, a ects reproduction and population productivity. 6. As there are some uncertainties regarding the long-term e ects of high hunting pressure, however, managers should favour sex ratios close to levels observed in non-harvested populations.
A species may modify its relative habitat use with changing availability, generating functional responses in habitat selection. Functional responses in habitat selection are expected to occur when animals experience trade-offs influencing their habitat selection, but only a few studies to date have explicitly linked functional responses to the underlying trade-offs faced by the animals. We used data from 39 female moose fitted with GPS telemetry collars in two nearby study areas in Canada to investigate if moose (1) were faced with a food/cover trade-off in habitat selection, as typically acknowledged in the literature, and (2) showed a functional response in their use of food/cover-rich habitats. We also examined how habitat selection patterns varied seasonally, and between study areas. The occurrence of functional responses varied strongly between study areas, and could not always be related to a measurable food/cover trade-off. Functional responses were observed more often in the study area where the environmental conditions were more severe (colder temperatures, higher precipitations, and lower food availability). Selection coefficients were also less variable among individuals in that study area, suggesting that severe environmental conditions may constrain individuals to a few selection tactics and promote the development of functional responses. Moose reacted to the availability of different habitat types in different seasons, reflecting the changing trade-offs faced by the animals. We found considerable behavioral differences between individuals from two adjacent study areas, and therefore recommend caution when extrapolating habitat selection results. We advocate for the wider use of functional responses to identify critical habitats for a species from a management or conservation perspective.
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