It is widely known that giant planets have the capacity to open deep gaps in their natal gaseous protoplanetary discs. It is unclear, however, how gas accretion onto growing planets influences the shape and depth of their growing gaps. We performed isothermal hydrodynamical simulations with the Fargo-2D1D code, which assumes planets accreting gas within full discs that range from 0.1 to 260 AU. The gas accretion routine uses a sink cell approach, in which different accretion rates are used to cope with the broad range of gas accretion rates cited in the literature. We find that the planetary gas accretion rate increases for larger disc aspect ratios and greater viscosities. Our main results show that gas accretion has an important impact on the gap-opening mass: we find that when the disc responds slowly to a change in planetary mass (i.e., at low viscosity), the gap-opening mass scales with the planetary accretion rate, with a higher gas accretion rate resulting in a larger gap-opening mass. On the other hand, if the disc response time is short (i.e., at high viscosity), then gas accretion helps the planet carve a deep gap. As a consequence, higher planetary gas accretion rates result in smaller gap-opening masses. Our results have important implications for the derivation of planet masses from disc observations: depending on the planetary gas accretion rate, the derived masses from ALMA observations might be off by up to a factor of two. We discuss the consequences of the change in the gap-opening mass on the evolution of planetary systems based on the example of the grand tack scenario. Planetary gas accretion also impacts stellar gas accretion, where the influence is minimal due to the presence of a gas-accreting planet.

The detection of a wide range of substructures such as rings, cavities, and spirals has become a common outcome of high spatial resolution imaging of protoplanetary disks, both in the near-infrared scattered light and in the thermal millimetre continuum emission. The most frequent interpretation of their origin is the presence of planetary-mass companions perturbing the gas and dust distribution in the disk (perturbers), but so far the only bona fide detection has been the two giant planets carving the disk around PDS 70. Here, we present a sample of 15 protoplanetary disks showing substructures in SPHERE scattered-light images and a homogeneous derivation of planet detection limits in these systems. To obtain mass limits we rely on different post-formation luminosity models based on distinct formation conditions, which are critical in the first million years of evolution. We also estimate the mass of these perturbers through a Hill radius prescription and a comparison to ALMA data. Assuming that one single planet carves each substructure in scattered light, we find that more massive perturbers are needed to create gaps within cavities than rings, and that we might be close to a detection in the cavities of RX J1604.3-2130A, RX J1615.3-3255, Sz Cha, HD 135344B, and HD 34282. We reach typical mass limits in these cavities of 3–10 MJup. For planets in the gaps between rings, we find that the detection limits of SPHERE high-contrast imaging are about an order of magnitude away in mass, and that the gaps of PDS 66 and HD 97048 seem to be the most promising structures for planet searches. The proposed presence of massive planets causing spiral features in HD 135344B and HD 36112 are also within SPHERE’s reach assuming hot-start models. These results suggest that the current detection limits are able to detect hot-start planets in cavities, under the assumption that they are formed by a single perturber located at the centre of the cavity. More realistic planet mass constraints would help to clarify whether this is actually the case, which might indicate that perturbers are not the only way of creating substructures.

New ALMA observations of protoplanetary disks allow us to probe planet formation in other planetary systems, giving us new constraints on planet formation processes. Meanwhile, studies of our own Solar System rely on constraints derived in a completely different way. However, it is still unclear what features the Solar System protoplanetary disk could have produced during its gas phase. By running 2D isothermal hydro-simulations used as inputs for a dust evolution model, we derive synthetic images at millimeter wavelengths using the radiative transfer code RADMC3D. We find that the embedded multiple giant planets strongly perturb the radial gas velocities of the disk. These velocity perturbations create traffic jams in the dust, producing over-densities different from the ones created by pressure traps and located away from the planets’ positions in the disk. By deriving the images at λ = 1.3 mm from these dust distributions, we show that very high resolution observations are needed to distinguish the most important features expected in the inner part (<15 AU) of the disk. The traffic jams, observable with a high resolution, further blur the link between the number of gaps and rings in disks and the number of embedded planets. We additionally show that a system capable of producing eccentric planets by scattering events that match the eccentricity distributions in observed exoplanets does not automatically produce bright outer rings at large radii in the disk. This means that high resolution observations of disks of various sizes are needed to distinguish between different giant planet formation scenarios during the disk phase, where the giants form either in the outer regions of the disks or in the inner regions. In the second scenario, the disks do not present planet-related features at large radii. Finally, we find that, even when the dust temperature is determined self-consistently, the dust masses derived observationally might be off by up to a factor of ten compared to the dust contained in our simulations due to the creation of optically thick regions. Our study clearly shows that in addition to the constraints from exoplanets and the Solar System, ALMA has the power to constrain different stages of planet formation already during the first few million years, which corresponds to the gas disk phase.

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Several planetary systems are known to host multiple giant planets. However, when two giant planets are accreting from the same disk, it is unclear what effect the presence of the second planet has on the gas accretion process of both planets. In this paper we perform long-term 2D isothermal hydrodynamical simulations (over more than 0.5 Myrs) with the FARGO-2D1D code, considering two non-migrating planets accreting from the same gaseous disk. We find that the evolution of the planets' mass ratio depends on gap formation. However, in all cases, when the planets start accreting at the same time, they end up with very similar masses (0.9 < m p,out /m p,in < 1.1 after 0.5 Myrs). Delaying the onset of accretion of one planet allows the planets' mass ratio to reach larger values initially, but they quickly converge to similar masses afterward (0.8 < m p,out /m p,in < 2 in 10 5 yrs). In order to reproduce the more diverse observed mass ratios of exoplanets, the planets must start accreting gas at different times, and their accretion must be stopped quickly after the beginning of runaway gas accretion (less than 0.5 Myrs), for example via disk dispersal. The evolution of the planets' mass ratio can have an important impact on the dynamics of the system and may constrain the formation history of Jupiter and Saturn.