The current view of dietary carbohydrates as simply providing us with energy is outdated. Because of their varied chemistry and physical form the rate and extent to which the different types are digested in and absorbed from the small intestine varies. This in turn leads to affects on satiety, blood glucose and insulin, protein glycosylation, lipids and bile acids. Some carbohydrates reach the colon where they are fermented and affect many aspects of large bowel function, colonocyte and hepatic metabolism.A new framework for classifying and measuring food carbohydrates is needed to allow a greater understanding of the role of individual species in health and to inform the public of their importance. A classi®cation based primarily on molecular size (degree of polymerisation) into sugars, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, is suggested, with sub-groups identi®ed by the nature of the monosaccharides. Greater knowledge of the chemical and physical properties of carbohydrates allow a more precise relation with physiology and health to be drawn.The Carbohydrate Group met in Paris in December 1995 at the invitation of Gerard Pascal, Director of CNERNA. Financial support for the meeting was provided by CNERNA.

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The night airglow spectrum of Venus in the ultraviolet is dominated by the v' = 0 progressions of the gamma and delta bands of nitric oxide. The bands are produced by two-body radiative recombination of nitrogen and oxygen atoms. Since the source of these atoms is in the dayside thermosphere, the night airglow is a tracer of the day-to-night thermospheric circulation. The airglow is brightest at equatorial latitudes, and at longitudes on the morning side of the antisolar meridian.

The upgrade of the LHC to the High-Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) is expected to increase the LHC design luminosity by an order of magnitude. This will require silicon tracking detectors with a significantly higher radiation hardness. The CMS Tracker Collaboration has conducted an irradiation and measurement campaign to identify suitable silicon sensor materials and strip designs for the future outer tracker at the CMS experiment. Based on these results, the collaboration has chosen to use n-in-p type silicon sensors and focus further investigations on the optimization of that sensor type. This paper describes the main measurement results and conclusions that motivated this decision.