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Recently, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) therapy has become a promising therapeutic strategy with encouraging therapeutic outcomes due to their durable anti-tumor effects. Though, tumor inherent or acquired resistance to ICIs accompanied with treatment-related toxicities hamper their clinical utility. Overall, about 60–70% of patients (e.g., melanoma and lung cancer) who received ICIs show no objective response to intervention. The resistance to ICIs mainly caused by alterations in the tumor microenvironment (TME), which in turn, supports angiogenesis and also blocks immune cell antitumor activities, facilitating tumor cells' evasion from host immunosurveillance. Thereby, it has been supposed and also validated that combination therapy with ICIs and other therapeutic means, ranging from chemoradiotherapy to targeted therapies as well as cancer vaccines, can capably compromise tumor resistance to immune checkpoint blocked therapy. Herein, we have focused on the therapeutic benefits of ICIs as a groundbreaking approach in the context of tumor immunotherapy and also deliver an overview concerning the therapeutic influences of the addition of ICIs to other modalities to circumvent tumor resistance to ICIs.

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Recently, mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) and their derivative exosome have become a promising approach in the context of liver diseases therapy, in particular, acute liver failure (ALF). In addition to their differentiation into hepatocytes in vivo, which is partially involved in liver regeneration, MSCs support liver regeneration as a result of their appreciated competencies, such as antiapoptotic, immunomodulatory, antifibrotic, and also antioxidant attributes. Further, MSCs-secreted molecules inspire hepatocyte proliferation in vivo, facilitating damaged tissue recovery in ALF. Given these properties, various MSCs-based approaches have evolved and resulted in encouraging outcomes in ALF animal models and also displayed safety and also modest efficacy in human studies, providing a new avenue for ALF therapy. Irrespective of MSCs-derived exosome, MSCs-based strategies in ALF include administration of native MSCs, genetically modified MSCs, pretreated MSCs, MSCs delivery using biomaterials, and also MSCs in combination with and other therapeutic molecules or modalities. Herein, we will deliver an overview regarding the therapeutic effects of the MSCs and their exosomes in ALF. As well, we will discuss recent progress in preclinical and clinical studies and current challenges in MSCs-based therapies in ALF, with a special focus on in vivo reports.

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