Pseudouridine synthase 1 (Pus1p) is an enzyme that converts uridine to Pseudouridine (C) in tRNA and other RNAs in eukaryotes. The active site of Pus1p is composed of stretches of amino acids that are highly conserved and it is hypothesized that mutation of select residues would impair the enzyme's ability to catalyze the formation of C. However, most mutagenesis studies have been confined to substitution of the catalytic aspartate, which invariably results in an inactive enzyme in all C synthases tested. To determine the requirements for particular amino acids at certain absolutely conserved positions in Pus1p, three residues (R116, Y173, R267) that correspond to amino acids known to compose the active site of TruA, a bacterial C synthase that is homologous to Pus1p, were mutated in human Pus1p (hPus1p). The effects of those mutations were determined with three different in vitro assays of pseudouridylation and several tRNA substrates. Surprisingly, it was found that each of these components of the hPus1p active site could tolerate certain amino acid substitutions and in fact most mutants exhibited some activity. The most active mutants retained near wild-type activity at positions 27 or 28 in the substrate tRNA, but activity was greatly reduced or absent at other positions in tRNA readily modified by wild-type hPus1p.

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Pseudouridine synthase 1 (Pus1p) is an unusual site-specific modification enzyme in that it can modify a number of positions in tRNAs and can recognize several other types of RNA. No consensus recognition sequence or structure has been identified for Pus1p. Human Pus1p was used to determine which structural or sequence elements of human tRNASer are necessary for pseudouridine (Ψ) formation at position 28 in the anticodon stem-loop (ASL). Some point mutations in the ASL stem of tRNASer had significant effects on the levels of modification and compensatory mutation, to reform the base pair, restored a wild-type level of Ψ formation. Deletion analysis showed that the tRNASer TΨC stem-loop was a determinant for modification in the ASL. A mini-substrate composed of the ASL and TΨC stem-loop exhibited significant Ψ formation at position 28 and a number of mutants were tested. Substantial base pairing in the ASL stem (3 out of 5 bp) is required, but the sequence of the TΨC loop is not required for modification. When all nucleotides in the ASL stem other than U28 were changed in a single mutant, but base pairing was retained, a near wild-type level of modification was observed.

Imaging large fields of view while preserving high-resolution structural information remains a challenge in low-dose cryo-electron tomography. Here, we present robust tools for montage electron tomography tailored for vitrified specimens. The integration of correlative cryo-fluorescence microscopy, focused-ion beam milling, and micropatterning produces contextual three-dimensional architecture of cells. Montage tilt series may be processed in their entirety or as individual tiles suitable for sub-tomogram averaging, enabling efficient data processing and analysis.

Whole-cell cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) is a powerful technology that is used to produce nanometer-level resolution structures of macromolecules present in the cellular context and preserved in a near-native frozen-hydrated state. However, there are challenges associated with culturing and/or adhering cells onto TEM grids in a manner that is suitable for tomography while retaining the cells in their physiological state. Here, a detailed step-by-step protocol is presented on the use of micropatterning to direct and promote eukaryotic cell growth on TEM grids. During micropatterning, cell growth is directed by depositing extra-cellular matrix (ECM) proteins within specified patterns and positions on the foil of the TEM grid while the other areas remain coated with an anti-fouling layer. Flexibility in the choice of surface coating and pattern design makes micropatterning broadly applicable for a wide range of cell types. Micropatterning is useful for studies of structures within individual cells as well as more complex experimental systems such as host-pathogen interactions or differentiated multi-cellular communities. Micropatterning may also be integrated into many downstream whole-cell cryo-ET workflows, including correlative light and electron microscopy (cryo-CLEM) and focused-ion beam milling (cryo-FIB).