The possibility of Swedish colonialism emerged for the first time during the reign of Gustav II Adolph of Sweden (1611–1632), when he issued a decree on the policy of Swedish colonization outside Europe in 1625. The Kingdom of Sweden was one of the most spectacularly expanding states in Europe in the 17th century, and the unmatched success of Swedish dynasticism was primarily due to their expansive foreign policy. The establishment of the Swedish colonization of the era – the founding of New Sweden in North America and the Swedish Gold Coast in West Africa – composed important foreground to the Swedish expansion. It is essential to explore the Dutch cultural transfer and intermediation in order to analyze the phenomenon of Swedish colonization, as the political and economic relations with The Hague (Staten-Generaal) and the activity of Dutch agents, diplomats, artists, architects, traders and entrepreneurs produced important background for the Kingdom of Sweden’s ambitions in the 17th century. The present study summarizes the Swedish colonization in North America and examines the activities of the Swedish Africa Company (Svenska Afrikakompaniet) from 1648–1649 to 1663, from the point of view of the Swedish–Dutch cultural transfers of the era, due to the Dutch affiliates involved in the operation of the company.
Poroszország, Oroszország és Ausztria 1772-ben sikeresen kezdte meg a lengyel–litván nemzetközösség területének egymás közötti felosztását, majd a három közép-kelet-európai hatalom új típusú felosztási diplomáciai gyakorlatának következtében a harmadik felosztást követően, 1795-re Lengyelország hosszú időre eltűnt Európa térképéről. A felosztásokra tárgyalóasztalok mellett, diplomáciai egyezmények révén került sor anélkül, hogy bármelyik szomszédos nagyhatalom háborúba keveredett volna egymással, avagy Lengyelországgal. A kortárs nyugat-európai diplomaták főként az európai hatalmi egyensúly alakulásának szempontjából vizsgálták az eseménysorozatot, tartva a három közép-kelet-európai hatalom inváziójának nagyhatalmi következményeitől. Már a kortárs visszhangok zöme is úgy vélte, hogy Lengyelország felosztásaiban egy újfajta egyensúlyozó politika, egy felosztási diplomáciára épített hatalomgyakorlat öltött testet. Jelen tanulmány ennek a sajátosan egyensúlyozó, felosztási diplomáciára épített nagyhatalmi konstellációnak a gyökereit kívánja vizsgálni egy sajátos aspektusból, elemezve az első lengyel felosztáshoz (1772) vezető bel- és külpolitikai utat, mindemellett bemutatva az európai hatalmi egyensúlyban különösen érdekelt Nagy-Britannia véleményét Lengyelország feldarabolásáról. A tanulmány fő része az első felosztásról szóló különböző brit vélemények vizualitását elemzi. A felosztásra reflektáló, közvetett vagy közvetlen módon ahhoz kapcsolódó kortárs brit politikai metszetek tekintetében öt grafika kerül részletes politikai ikonográfiai elemzésre a British Museum gyűjteményéből az 1772–1774 közötti időszakból.
Prussia, Russia, and Austria gradually divided the territory of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in three stages between 1772 and 1795. In their partition policy, Prussia and Russia managed to make Austria take sides with them on the first, as well as the third occasion, and during these partitions, the Western powers such as France or Great Britain – although fully opposing such violent breach of Polish–Lithuanian statehood – did not act against them. A new kind of balancing policy and partition diplomacy materialized in these partitions of Poland (rozbiory Polski) and the loss of Polish sovereignty. The present paper seeks to explore the roots of this peculiarly balancing constellation of great powers, analysing the political environment that led to the first division of Poland in 1772, while investigating the opinion of Great Britain on the partition. The first part of the study places the 18th-century European political scene in an ideohistorical contéxt, présénting thé concépts of ‘réason of staté’ and ‘balancé of powér’ that motivated the dynamics of diplomatic negotiations. In light of this, the second part describes the motivations and key events of Polish (domestic) and European (great power) politics in the 18th century up to the time of the first partition, while the main part analyses the English press reaction to the division, its visual sources and the relevant pamphlet literature of 1772–1774.
In the 17th century – especially in the period after the Peace of Westphalia (1648) – more and more treatises were published about the European balance of power, which clearly appeared against the concept of universal monarchy (monarchia universalis) by this time. The balance of power principle became a prominent element of 18th-century state politics and political journalism, as well as one of the key concepts of the emerging theory of interstate relations. The term became part of the official language of diplomacy with the Peace of Utrecht (1713), becoming part not only of political thought, but also of the official political practice, and developed into one of the fundamental milestones of English foreign policy and political thought in the 18th centuries. This paper analyses the contemporary incorporation of the balance of power concept into English political thought with the analysis of English economist and political writér Charles Davenant’s (1656–1714) An Essay Upon The Ballance of Power (1701). The analysis is trying to point out how the principle of balance of power began to play an increasingly important role in European great power politics as well as in English domestic and foreign policy in the decades before the Peace of Utrecht (1713), and how Charles Davenant’s political pamphlet can fit in this context.
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