Abstract. In a study of geological and geophysical data from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, we have identified 17 large, domed edifices (megamullions) that have surfaces corrugated by distinctive mullion structure and that are developed within inside-corner tectonic settings at ends of spreading segments. The edifices have elevated residual gravity anomalies, and limited sampling has recovered gabbros and serpentinites, suggesting that they expose extensive cross sections of the oceanic crust and upper mantle. Oceanic megamullions are comparable to continental metamorphic core complexes in scale and structure, and they may originate by similar processes. The megamullions are interpreted to be rotated footwall blocks of low-angle detachment faults, and they provide the best evidence to date for the common development and longevity (-1-2 m.y.) of such faults in ocean crust. Prolonged slip on a detachment fault probably occurs when a spreading segment experiences a lengthy phase of relatively amagmatic extension. During these periods it is easier to maintain slip on an existing fault at the segment end than it is to break a new fault in the strong rift-valley lithosphere; slip on the detachment fault probably is facilitated by fault weakening related to deep lithospheric changes in deformation mechanism and mantle serpentinization. At the segment center, minor, episodic magmatism may continue to weaken the axial lithosphere and thus sustain inward jumping of faults. A detachment fault will be terminated when magmatism becomes robust enough to reach the segment end, weaken the axial lithosphere, and promote inward fault jumps there. This mechanism may be generally important in controlling the longevity of normal faults at segment ends and thus in accounting for variable and intermittent development of inside-corner highs.

Abstract. First-order (transform) and second-order ridge-axis discontinuities create a fundamental segmentation of the lithosphere along mid-ocean ridges, and in slow spreading crust they commonly are associated with exposure of subvolcanic crust and upper mantle. We analyzed available morphological, gravity, and rock sample data from the Atlantic Ocean to determine whether consistent structural patems occur at these discontinuites and to constrain the processes that control the patterns. The results show that along their older, inside-comer sides, both firstand semond-order discontinuities are characterized by thinned crust and/or mantle exposures as well as by irregular fault patterns and a paucity of volcanic features. Crust on young, outside-comer sides of discontinuities has more normal thickness, regular fault patems, and common volcanic forms. These patterns are consistent with tectonic th'mning of crust at inside comers by lowangle detachment faults as previously suggested for transform discontinuities by Dick et al. [1981] and Karson [1990]. Volcanic upper crust accretes in the hang'rag wall of the detachment, is stripped from the inside-comer footwall, and is carried to the outside comer. Gravity and morphological data suggest that detachment faulting is a relatively continuous, long-lived process in crust spread'rag at <25-30 mm/yr, that it may be intermittent at intermediate rates of 2540 mm/yr, and that it is unlikely to occur at faster rates. Detachment surfaces are dissected by later, high-angle faults formed during crustal uplift 'into the rift mountains; these faults can cut through the entire crust and may be the kinds of faults imaged by seismic reflection proffi'mg over Cretaceous North Atlantic crust. Off-axis variations in gravity anomalies 'indicate that slow spreading crust experiences cyclic magmatic/amagmatic extension and that a typical cycle is about 2 m.y. long. During magmatic phases the footwall of the detachment fault probably exposes lower crustal gabbros, although these rocks locally may have an unconformable volcanic carapace. During amagmafic extension the detachment may dip steeply through the crust, providing a mechanism whereby upper mantle ultramafic rocks can Ix: exhumed very rapidly, perhaps in as littic as 0.5 m.y. Togc•cr, detachment faulting and cyclic magmatic/amagmatic extension create strongly heterogeneous lithosphere both along and across isochrons in slow spreading ocean crust.

[1] We mapped the Kane megamullion, an oceanic core complex on the west flank of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge exposing the plutonic foundation of a 50 km long, second-order ridge segment. The complex was exhumed by long-lived slip on a normal-sense detachment fault at the base of the rift valley wall from 3.3 to 2.1 Ma (Williams, 2007). Mantle peridotites, gabbros, and diabase dikes are exposed in the detachment footwall and in outward facing high-angle normal fault scarps and slide-scar headwalls that cut through the detachment. These rocks directly constrain crustal architecture and the pattern of melt flow from the mantle to and within the lower crust. In addition, the volcanic carapace that originally overlay the complex is preserved intact on the conjugate African plate, so the complete internal and external architecture of the paleoridge segment can be studied. Seafloor spreading during formation of the core complex was highly asymmetric, and crustal accretion occurred largely in the footwall of the detachment fault exposing the core complex. Because additions to the footwall, both magmatic and amagmatic, are nonconservative, oceanic detachment faults are plutonic growth faults. A local volcano and fissure eruptions partially cover the northwestern quarter of the complex. This volcanism is associated with outward facing normal faults and possible, intersecting transform-parallel faults that formed during exhumation of the megamullion, suggesting the volcanics erupted off-axis. We find a zone of late-stage vertical melt transport through the mantle to the crust in the southern part of the segment marked by a 10 km wide zone of dunites that likely fed a large gabbro and troctolite intrusion intercalated with dikes. This zone correlates with the midpoint of a lineated axial volcanic high of the same age on the conjugate African plate. In the central region of the segment, however, primitive gabbro is rare, massive depleted peridotite tectonites abundant, and dunites nearly absent, which indicate that little melt crossed the crust-mantle boundary there. Greenschist facies diabase and pillow basalt hanging wall debris are scattered over the detachment surface. The diabase indicates lateral melt transport in dikes that fed the volcanic carapace away from the magmatic centers. At the northern edge of the complex (southern wall of the Kane transform) is a second magmatic center marked by olivine gabbro and minor troctolite intruded into mantle peridotite tectonite. This center varied substantially in size with time, consistent with waxing and waning volcanism near the transform as is also inferred from volcanic abyssal-hill relief on the conjugate African plate. Our results indicate that melt flow from the mantle focuses to local magmatic centers and creates plutonic complexes within the ridge segment whose position varies in space and time rather than fixed at a single central point. Distal to and between these complexes there may not be continuous gabbroic crust, but only a thin carapace of pillow lavas overlying dike...

Normal faults are ubiquitous on mid-ocean ridges and are expected to develop increasing offset with reduced spreading rate as the proportion of tectonic extension increases. Numerous long-lived detachment faults that form megamullions with large-scale corrugations have been identifi ed on magma-poor mid-ocean ridges, but recent studies suggest, counterintuitively, that they may be associated with elevated magmatism. We present numerical models and geological data to show that these detachments occur when ~30%-50% of total extension is accommodated by magmatic accretion and that there is signifi cant magmatic accretion in the fault footwalls. Under these low-melt conditions, magmatism may focus unevenly along the spreading axis to create an irregular brittle-plastic transition where detachments root, thus explaining the origin of the enigmatic corrugations. Morphological and compositional characteristics of the oceanic lithosphere suggested by this study provide important new constraints to assess the distribution of magmatic versus tectonic extension along mid-ocean ridges.Keywords: mid-ocean ridge, detachment fault, megamullion, oceanic core complex, oceanic magmatism, numerical modeling. INTRODUCTIONThere is ongoing debate about the role of magmatism during normal faulting at mid-ocean ridges (MORs), particularly for very long-lived (~1-2 m.y.) normal faults, which we here term detachment faults. Plate separation at MORs is accomplished by both magmatic intrusion and slip on normal faults. Intrusion of dikes can occur when the difference between maximum and minimum stresses is lower than that required for fault slip, and intrusion further reduces the stress difference (Rubin, 1995). This implies that major normal faults should form only when there is little or no magma supply. Some numerical models also suggest that detachments can form during amagmatic extension if the lithosphere is thin and cohesion decreases with fault displacement (Lavier et al., 2000). These ideas are consistent with the observation that most detachment faults occur at the ends of spreading segments where melt supply is usually low compared to segment centers (e.g., Lin et al., 1990;Tucholke et al., 1998). Furthermore, large tracts of unusually smooth seafl oor, interpreted as successive fault surfaces, have been observed on the ultraslow-spreading Southwest Indian Ridge, where magmatism is extremely limited (Cannat et al., 2006).In contrast, some recent observations suggest that magmatism may be important during the evolution of detachment faults. Because of their long-lived slip, these faults can exhume tens of kilometers of lower ocean crust and upper mantle. To maintain isostatic equilibrium, the footwalls typically roll over (Buck, 1988) and form megamullions characterized by domed shapes and by large (to hundreds of meters), enigmatic, fault-surface corrugations as well as smaller mullions and striations that parallel fault-slip direction (Tucholke et al., 1998) (Fig. 1A). Three megamullions have been drilled, two on the Mi...

[1] We conducted a seismic refraction experiment across Flemish Cap and into the deep basin east of Newfoundland, Canada, and developed a velocity model for the crust and mantle from forward and inverse modeling of data from 25 ocean bottom seismometers and dense air gun shots. The continental crust at Flemish Cap is 30 km thick and is divided into three layers with P wave velocities of 6.0-6.7 km/s. Across the southeast Flemish Cap margin, the continental crust thins over a 90-km-wide zone to only 1.2 km. The ocean-continent boundary is near the base of Flemish Cap and is marked by a fault between thinned continental crust and 3-km-thick crust with velocities of 4.7-7.0 km/s interpreted as crust from magma-starved oceanic accretion. This thin crust continues seaward for 55 km and thins locally to $1.5 km. Below a sediment cover (1.9-3.1 km/s), oceanic layer 2 (4.7-4.9 km/s) is $1.5 km thick, while layer 3 (6.9 km/s) seems to disappear in the thinnest segment of the oceanic crust. At the seawardmost end of the line the crust thickens to $6 km. Mantle with velocities of 7.6-8.0 km/s underlies both the thin continental and thin oceanic crust in an 80-km-wide zone. A gradual downward increase to normal mantle velocities is interpreted to reflect decreasing degree of serpentinization with depth. Normal mantle velocities of 8.0 km/s are observed $6 km below basement. There are major differences compared to the conjugate Galicia Bank margin, which has a wide zone of extended continental crust, more faulting, and prominent detachment faults. Crust formed by seafloor spreading appears symmetric, however, with 30-km-wide zones of oceanic crust accreted on both margins beginning about 4.5 m.y. before formation of magnetic anomaly M0 ($118 Ma).

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The Newfoundland-Iberia rift is considered to be a type example of a non-volcanic rift. Key features of the conjugate margins are transition zones (TZs) that lie between clearly continental crust and presumed normal (Penrose-type) oceanic crust that appears up to 150-180 km farther seaward. Basement ridges drilled in the Iberia TZ consist of exhumed, serpentinized peridotite of continental affinity, consistent with seismic refraction studies. Although the boundaries between continental crust and the TZs can be defined with relative confidence, there are major questions about the position and nature of the change from rifting to normal sea-floor spreading at the seaward edges of the TZs. Notably, drilling of presumed oceanic crust in the young M-series anomalies (,M5) has recovered serpentinized peridotite, and this basement experienced major extension up to approximately 15 million years after it was emplaced. In addition, existing interpretations place the 'breakup unconformity' (normally associated with the separation of continental crust and simultaneous formation of oceanic crust) near the Aptian-Albian boundary, which is also some 15 million years younger than the oldest proposed oceanic crust (anomaly M5-M3) in the rift.To investigate and potentially resolve these conflicts, we analysed the tectonic history and deep (pre-Cenomanian) stratigraphy of the rift using seismic reflection profiles and drilling results. Rifting occurred in two main phases (Late Triassic-earliest Jurassic and Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous). The first phase formed continental rift basins without significant thinning of continental crust. The second phase led to continental breakup, with extension concentrated in three episodes that culminated near the end of Berriasian, Hauterivian and Aptian time. The first two episodes appear to correlate with separation of continental crust in the southern and northern parts of the rift, respectively, suggesting that the rift opened from south to north in a two-step process. The third episode persisted through Barremian and Aptian time. We suggest that during this period there was continued exhumation of subcontinental mantle lithosphere at the plate boundary, and that elevated in-plane tensile stress throughout the rift caused intraplate extension, primarily within the exhumed mantle. This rifting may have been interrupted for a time during the Barremian when melt was introduced from the southern edge of the rift by plume magmatism that formed the Southeast Newfoundland Ridge and J Anomaly Ridge, and the conjugate Madeira-Tore Rise. We propose that the rising asthenosphere breached the subcontinental mantle lithosphere in latest Aptian-earliest Albian time, initiating sea-floor spreading. This resulted in relaxation of in-plane tensile stress (i.e. a pulse of relative compression) that caused internal plate deformation and enhanced mass wasting. This 'Aptian event' produced a strong, rift-wide reflection that is unconformably onlapped by post-rift sediments that were deposited as a stable sea-fl...

[1] Long-lived detachment faults at mid-ocean ridges exhume deep-seated rocks to form oceanic core complexes (OCCs). Using large-offset (6 km) multichannel seismic data, we have derived two-dimensional seismic tomography models for three of the best developed OCCs on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Our results show that large lateral variations in P wave velocity occur within the upper $0.5-1.7 km of the lithosphere. We observe good correlations between velocity structure and lithology as documented by in situ geological samples and seafloor morphology, and we use these correlations to show that gabbros are heterogeneously distributed as large (tens to >100 km 2 ) bodies within serpentinized peridotites. Neither the gabbros nor the serpentinites show any systematic distribution with respect to along-isochron position within the enclosing spreading segment, indicating that melt extraction from the mantle is not necessarily focused at segment centers, as has been commonly inferred. In the spreading direction, gabbros are consistently present toward the terminations of the detachment faults. This suggests enhanced magmatism during the late stage of OCC formation due either to natural variability in the magmatic cycle or to decompression melting during footwall exhumation. Heat introduced into the rift valley by flow and crystallization of this melt could weaken the axial lithosphere and result in formation of new faults, and it therefore may explain eventual abandonment of detachments that form OCCs. Detailed seismic studies of the kind described here, when constrained by seafloor morphology and geological samples, can distinguish between major lithological units such as volcanics, gabbros, and serpentinized peridotites at lateral scales of a few kilometers. Thus such studies have tremendous potential to elucidate the internal structure of the shallow lithosphere and to help us understand the tectonic and magmatic processes by which they were emplaced.