23hominivorax Coquerel); several species of tsetse fly (Glossina spp.); and the codling 71 moth (Cydia pomonella L.) [reviewed in 17, 18]. 72 73 Successful SIT programs as part of Area-wide Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 74 strategies have also been implemented for several tephritids: Ceratitis capitata 75 Wiedemann; Anastrepha ludens Loew; Anastrepha obliqua Macquart; Anastrepha 76 fraterculus Wiedemann; Zeugodacus cucurbitae Coquillett; Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel; 77and Bactrocera tryoni Froggatt [6, 12, 13, 15]. SIT is currently being developed for two 78 additional tephritid species: Dacus ciliatus Loew and Bactrocera tau Walker [19, 20]. 79The advantages of the SIT over other pest control approaches (e.g. use of pesticides) 80 are that it is the most environmentally friendly and resistance is unlikely to evolve [21, 81 22]. 82 83 Another autocidal strategy where mating between mass-reared and wild insects can be 84 used to suppress pest populations is the incompatible insect technique (IIT). IIT also 85 relies on the principle of reducing female fertility, but utilizes endosymbiotic bacteria 86 instead of radiation, to induce a context-dependent sterility in wild females. It is based 87 on the ability of certain maternally inherited bacteria (namely from the genus Wolbachia) 88to induce a form of reproductive incompatibility known as cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI; 89 explained in the section below). Herein we review the current knowledge on taxonomic 90 diversity of Wolbachia-tephritid associations and their phenotypic consequences, and 91 identify gaps in knowledge and approaches in the context of potential application of IIT in 92 AW-IPM programs to control tephritid pests. We also discuss scenarios where these 93 two autocidal strategies, SIT and IIT, could be potentially combined for the population 94 suppression of tephritid pests. 95 96 5 The influence of Wolbachia on host ecology 97Insects and other arthropods are common hosts of maternally inherited bacteria 98 [reviewed in 23]. These heritable endosymbionts can have a strong influence on host 99 ecology. Such vertically transmitted bacteria are typically vastly (or fully) dependent on 100 the host for survival and transmission. Certain associations are obligate for both 101 partners, and generally involve a nutritional benefit to the host. Other heritable bacteria 102 are facultative, with such associations ranging from mutualistic to parasitic from the 103 host's perspective. Among these, Wolbachia is the most common and widespread 104 facultative symbiont of insects and arthropods [24][25][26][27]. 105 106 Wolbachia is a diverse and old genus [possibly older than 200 million years; 28] of 107 intracellular gram-negative Alphaproteobacteria (within the order Rickettsiales) 108 associated with arthropods and filarial nematodes. Wolbachia cells resemble small 109 spheres 0.2-1.5 μ m, occur in all tissue types, but tend to be more prevalent in ovaries 110 and testicles of infected hosts, and are closely associated with the female germline 111 [...
Separation of the sexes is necessary for the application of the sterile insect technique (SIT) in mosquitoes due to the hematophagous habits and disease vector activity of the females. In this review we analyze the history, current status, and future perspectives for the development of genetic sexing strains (GSS) of Aedes mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). Various genetic control methods for mosquitoes are reviewed, as are their need for sex-separation methods. We focus on areas of opportunity where GSS developed with classical genetic methods can be used. Regulatory restrictions and social acceptance of various control methods are analyzed. We conclude that the development of GSS by classical methods represents the most viable option for separation of the sexes and the application of large-scale SIT programs within an area-wide integrated vector management (AW-IVM) approach.
Fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) are serious pests that affect fruit production and marketing. Both third instar larvae and pupae are biological stages that persist in the soil until adult emergence. Entomopathogenic nematodes (ENs) are biological control agents that are used to control agricultural pests in greenhouse or field conditions. Several studies have been carried out under laboratory and field conditions showing how ENs can be applied within an area-wide integrated pest management approach to control fruit fly species in orchards and backyard fruit trees. In this review, we analyze how soil physical characteristics and biotic factors affect the performance of these biological control agents. Of the reviewed papers, more than half evaluated the influence of soil texture, humidity, temperature, and other factors on the performance of infective juveniles (IJs). Abiotic factors that significantly influence the performance of IJs are temperature, humidity, and texture. Among the biotic factors that affect IJs are fungi, bacteria, mites, insects, and earthworms. We conclude that ENs have the potential to be applied in the drip area of fruit trees that are infested by fruit flies and contribute to their suppression. This approach, in conjunction with an area-wide pest management approach, may contribute to pest suppression and increase the sustainability of agroecosystems.
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