a b s t r a c tOrgan size is controlled by the concerted action of biochemical and physical processes. Although mechanical forces are known to regulate cell and tissue behavior, as well as organogenesis, the precise molecular events that integrate mechanical and biochemical signals to control these processes are not fully known. The recently delineated Hippo-tumor suppressor network and its two nuclear effectors, YAP and TAZ, shed light on these mechanisms. YAP and TAZ are proto-oncogene proteins that respond to complex physical milieu represented by the rigidity of the extracellular matrix, cell geometry, cell density, cell polarity and the status of the actin cytoskeleton. Here, we review the current knowledge of how YAP and TAZ function as mechanosensors and mechanotransducers. We also suggest that by deciphering the mechanical and biochemical signals controlling YAP/TAZ function, we will gain insights into new strategies for cancer treatment and organ regeneration.

Besides thriving on altered glucose metabolism, cancer cells undergo glutaminolysis to meet their energy demands. As the first enzyme in catalyzing glutaminolysis, human kidney-type glutaminase isoform (KGA) is becoming an attractive target for small molecules such as BPTES [bis-2-(5 phenylacetamido-1, 2, 4-thiadiazol-2-yl) ethyl sulfide], although the regulatory mechanism of KGA remains unknown. On the basis of crystal structures, we reveal that BPTES binds to an allosteric pocket at the dimer interface of KGA, triggering a dramatic conformational change of the key loop (Glu312-Pro329) near the catalytic site and rendering it inactive. The binding mode of BPTES on the hydrophobic pocket explains its specificity to KGA. Interestingly, KGA activity in cells is stimulated by EGF, and KGA associates with all three kinase components of the Raf-1/Mek2/Erk signaling module. However, the enhanced activity is abrogated by kinase-dead, dominant negative mutants of Raf-1 (Raf-1-K375M) and Mek2 (Mek2-K101A), protein phosphatase PP2A, and Mek-inhibitor U0126, indicative of phosphorylation-dependent regulation. Furthermore, treating cells that coexpressed Mek2-K101A and KGA with suboptimal level of BPTES leads to synergistic inhibition on cell proliferation. Consequently, mutating the crucial hydrophobic residues at this key loop abrogates KGA activity and cell proliferation, despite the binding of constitutive active Mek2-S222/226D. These studies therefore offer insights into (i) allosteric inhibition of KGA by BPTES, revealing the dynamic nature of KGA's active and inhibitory sites, and (ii) cross-talk and regulation of KGA activities by EGF-mediated Raf-Mek-Erk signaling. These findings will help in the design of better inhibitors and strategies for the treatment of cancers addicted with glutamine metabolism.Warburg effect | RAS/MAPK | crystallography T he Warburg effect in cancer biology describes the tendency of cancer cells to take up more glucose than most normal cells, despite the availability of oxygen (1, 2). In addition to altered glucose metabolism, glutaminolysis (catabolism of glutamine to ATP and lactate) is another hallmark of cancer cells (2, 3). In glutaminolysis, mitochondrial glutaminase catalyzes the conversion of glutamine to glutamate (4), which is further catabolized in the Krebs cycle for the production of ATP, nucleotides, certain amino acids, lipids, and glutathione (2, 5).Humans express two glutaminase isoforms: KGA (kidney-type) and LGA (liver-type) from two closely related genes (6). Although KGA is important for promoting growth, nothing is known about the precise mechanism of its activation or inhibition and how its functions are regulated under physiological or pathophysiological conditions. Inhibition of rat KGA activity by antisense mRNA results in decreased growth and tumorigenicity of Ehrlich ascites tumor cells (7), reduced level of glutathione, and induced apoptosis (8), whereas Myc, an oncogenic transcription factor, stimulates KGA expression and glutamine metabolism (5). Interestingly...

Yes-associated protein (YAP) is regulated by mechanical cues via the interaction of the Hippo pathway with cytoskeleton. Previous studies showed that YAP plays a role in regulating the actomyosin network by suppressing Rho GTPase in medaka fish. Here, we identify Rho GTPase activating protein 29 (ARHGAP29) as a transcriptional target of YAP in a human gastric cancer cell line. YAP promotes the expression of ARHGAP29 to suppress the RhoA-LIMK-cofilin pathway, destabilizing F-actin. The overexpression of YAP causes cytoskeletal rearrangement by altering the dynamics of F-actin/G-actin turnover, thus promoting migration. In a mouse model, circulating tumor cells (CTCs) exhibit an increased ARHGAP29 RNA level compared with cells at primary tumor sites, and the metastatic potential of CTCs is positively correlated with ARHGAP29 expression. Moreover, increased ARHGAP29 expression is correlated with shortened survival of human gastric cancer patients. Our study provides a model to understand YAP's contribution to cancer metastasis via regulation of actin dynamics.

Pruning that selectively eliminates neuronal processes is crucial for the refinement of neural circuits during development. In Drosophila, the class IV dendritic arborization neuron (ddaC) undergoes pruning to remove its larval dendrites during metamorphosis. We identified Sox14 as a transcription factor that was necessary and sufficient to mediate dendrite severing during pruning in response to ecdysone signaling. We found that Sox14 mediated dendrite pruning by directly regulating the expression of the target gene mical. mical encodes a large cytosolic protein with multiple domains that are known to associate with cytoskeletal components. mical mutants had marked severing defects during dendrite pruning that were similar to those of sox14 mutants. Overexpression of Mical could significantly rescue pruning defects in sox14 mutants, suggesting that Mical is a major downstream target of Sox14 during pruning. Thus, our findings indicate that a previously unknown pathway composed of Sox14 and its cytoskeletal target Mical governs dendrite severing.

Drosophila Sprouty (dSpry) was genetically identi®ed as a novel antagonist of ®broblast growth factor receptor (FGFR), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and Sevenless signalling, ostensibly by eliciting its response on the Ras/MAPK pathway. Four mammalian sprouty genes have been cloned, which appear to play an inhibitory role mainly in FGFmediated lung and limb morphogenesis. Evidence is presented herein that describes the functional implications of the direct association between human Sprouty2 (hSpry2) and c-Cbl, and its impact on the cellular localization and signalling capacity of EGFR. Contrary to the consensus view that Spry2 is a general inhibitor of receptor tyrosine kinase signalling, hSpry2 was shown to abrogate EGFR ubiquitylation and endocytosis, and sustain EGF-induced ERK signalling that culminates in differentiation of PC12 cells. Correlative evidence showed the failure of hSpry2DN11 and mSpry4, both de®cient in c-Cbl binding, to instigate these effects. hSpry2 interacts speci®cally with the c-Cbl RING ®nger domain and displaces UbcH7 from its binding site on the E3 ligase. We conclude that hSpry2 potentiates EGFR signalling by speci®cally intercepting c-Cbl-mediated effects on receptor down-regulation.

The p38α/β mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway promotes skeletal myogenesis, but the mechanisms by which it is activated during this process are unclear. During myoblast differentiation, the promyogenic cell surface receptor Cdo binds to the p38α/β pathway scaffold protein JLP and, via JLP, p38α/β itself. We report that Cdo also interacts with Bnip-2, a protein that binds the small guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) Cdc42 and a negative regulator of Cdc42, Cdc42 GTPase-activating protein (GAP). Moreover, Bnip-2 and JLP are brought together through mutual interaction with Cdo. Gain- and loss-of-function experiments with myoblasts indicate that the Cdo–Bnip-2 interaction stimulates Cdc42 activity, which in turn promotes p38α/β activity and cell differentiation. These results reveal a previously unknown linkage between a cell surface receptor and downstream modulation of Cdc42 activity. Furthermore, interaction with multiple scaffold-type proteins is a distinctive mode of cell surface receptor signaling and provides one mechanism for specificity of p38α/β activation during cell differentiation.

Cortactin is an important molecular scaffold for actin assembly and organization. Novel mechanistic functions of cortactin have emerged with more interacting partners identified, revealing its multifaceted roles in regulating actin cytoskeletal networks that are necessary for endocytosis, cell migration and invasion, adhesion, synaptic organization and cell morphogenesis. These processes are mediated by its multi-domains binding to F-actin and Arp2/3 complex and various SH3 targets. Furthermore, its role in actin remodeling is subjected to regulation by tyrosine and serine/threonine kinases. Elucidating the mechanisms underlying cortactin phosphorylation and its functional consequences would provide new insights to various aspects of cell dynamics control.

Over the past decade, researchers have highlighted the importance of mechanical cues of the metastatic niche such as matrix stiffness, topography, mechanical stresses, and deformation on cells in influencing tumor growth and proliferation. Understanding the cellular and molecular basis and fine-tuning the mechano-response of cancer cells to this niche could lead to new and novel therapeutic interventions. In this review, we discuss the importance of mechanical cues surrounding tumor microenvironment that govern the growth and progression of cancer. We also highlight some emergent principles underlying the mechanosensing and mechanotransduction mechanisms that link cellular responses such as gene expression to phenotypic changes arising from such external cues. Recent technological advancements to visualize, quantify, model, and test these crucial steps with great precision will further advance our understanding of this phenomenon. We will conclude by showcasing potential applications of mechanobiology in controlling cancer growth as alternative cancer treatment regimes.