This experiment investigates the recent proposal of Schmidt, Young, Swinnen, and Shapiro (1989) that summary knowledge of results (KR) improves skill retention. In Schmidt et al.'s experiment, however, summary length varied concomitantly with the frequency of KR presentation. The current investigation held KR presentation frequency constant while manipulating the number of trials seen in the summary KR display. Subjects were required to perform a timing task on a linear slide. Five groups (n = 12) of subjects participated in acquisition trials then in 10-min and 2-day delayed no-KR retention tests. In 4 conditions, subjects completed each acquisition block without any KR, but following each block they received KR on either 15, 7, 3, or 1 of the 15 trials performed in that block. In the final condition subjects received immediate KR. Analysis of the absolute constant error (magnitude of CE) data for acquisition revealed all groups improved with practice and the immediate KR group performed better than all the summary groups which in turn did not differ significantly. Analysis of the magnitude of CE retention data found performance to be worse on the 2-day retention test for all groups. The effect of condition was significant. The 1/1 group had lower error scores than all other groups, which in turn were not significantly different. Analyses of variable error (VE) revealed only that VE decreased with practice. These findings suggest frequency of KR presentation may be the basis for the summary KR effect found by Schmidt et al. (1989).
This study varied the accuracy demand within a linear series of targets to investigate the effect of movement-pathway constraints on response-programming time. Sidaway, Christina, and Shea (1988) have suggested that constraints placed upon movement initiation by the demand for response precision may play an important role in determining the length of the programming process. By varying the subtended angles of a series of three targets, this experiment tested the specific prediction of Sidaway et al. that programming time may be a function of the target, within a line of targets, that subtends the smallest angle at the start position. It is this target that demands the greatest precision in the movement pathway. Subjects participated in a series of conditions in which the size and placement of the target that imposed the maximal constraint was varied. In each condition the subjects were required to strike a series of three targets with a stylus in a simple reaction-time paradigm. Analysis of the reaction-time results revealed a significant effect of size of constraint, but no effect of position of constraint. Analysis of the movement-time data dispelled movement-duration and movement-velocity interpretations of the results and intimated a possible online trajectory-correction process.
Microcomputers are increasingly being used in psychiatry for a variety of purposes.' When used in computer-patient 'interviews' they have generally proved acceptableâ€"indeed popularâ€"with psychiatric patients.2 Automated psycho logical assessment is one form of computer-patient inter view that is attracting much interest.3 Some of the early applications were with elderly patients.4'5 Kendrick6 has expressed doubts regarding this application with the current generation of elderly people, suggesting that their relative unfamiliarity with computers and video games might cause difficulties.In a pilot study7 we showed that automated testing of psychogeriatric patients with a microcomputer based sys tem was feasible. However, we recommended further devel opment of both equipment and programmes to reduce some of the difficulties that were encountered. One recommendation was that displays need to be large and clear for the elderly. A fifth of our pilot study sample could not read the instructions and items printed on the TV screen. One snag in simply applying automated tests devel oped for younger patients8'9 is the quantity of written instructions and verbal items used. Two approaches to overcoming the problem are possible; one is to use computer-synthesised speech to back up or supplement written material; the other is to increase the clarity of the written material. We have explored the latter approach.A second recommendation was the need to avoid the use of response buttons, which introduce an excessivecognitive load in translating the response from screen to response pad. This is avoided if the screen itself is the response device, i.e. by using a 'touch-sensitive screen'. However, Ogden el al. ' °have argued that a touch-sensitive screen would not be appropriate for elderly people. Three reasons are put for ward for this view. Firstly, it is unfamiliar, would appear 'magical' and would tend to be seen as frightening and unpredictable. Secondly, effort would be required to reach the screen, which could be potentially tiring. Thirdly, many elderly people suffering from hypermetropia would need to sit further away than arm's length from the screen, and so could not be in a position both to see the screen and respond appropriately.Finally, we recommended greater use of the computer's ability to present information graphically and to record response times, making full use of the microcomputer's potential. In the pilot study information and orientation items had simply been presented in a multiple-choice format. In this study there were then three major aims. Firstly, to examine whether reading difficulties could be reduced by larger, clearer written displays. Secondly, to test whether a touch-sensitive screen would have advantages for elderly patients, despite the contra-indications that have been put forward by Ogden el at. Thirdly, to develop programmes using more of the microcomputer's potential. Experiment 1â€"Reducingreading difficultiesSubjects ami equipment: Subjects were consenting in-patients and day-patien...
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