Sustainable development is a contested concept, with theories shaped by people's and organizations' different worldviews, which in turn influence how issues are formulated and actions proposed. It is usually presented as the intersection between environment, society and economy, which are conceived of as separate although connected entities. We would argue that these are not unified entities: rather they are fractured and multi-layered and can be considered at different spatial levels. The economy is often given priority in policies and the environment is viewed as apart from humans. They are interconnected, with the economy dependent on society and the environment while human existence and society are dependent on, and within the environment. The separation of environment, society and economy often leads to a narrow techno-scientific approach, while issues to do with society that are most likely to challenge the present socio-economic structure are often marginalized, in particular the sustainability of communities and the maintenance of cultural diversity. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. and ERP Environment

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Objective Six recent genome scans of different systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) multiplex family cohorts showed multiple putative susceptibility loci. In the present study, we examined 4 previously identified loci to replicate findings of significant linkage to 1q23 and 16q12, and to support findings of suggestive linkage to 14q21‐23 and 20p12 in a cohort of 115 multiethnic nuclear families containing 145 SLE‐affected sibpairs. Methods Model‐free, multipoint linkage analyses (SIBPAL2, SAGE version 4.0) and exclusion mapping (GeneHunter) were performed. Results Linkages to 1q23 (peak at D1S2675, mean allele sharing [MAS] 0.56; P = 0.003) and to 16q12 (peaks between D16S753 and D16S757, MAS 0.57; P = 0.003) were confirmed, but linkage evidence at 20p12 was weak and inconsistent (MAS 0.52–0.56; from P = 0.005 to P not significant). Evidence for linkage to 1q23 and 16q12 was stronger in 68 non‐Caucasian affected sibpairs than in 77 Caucasian affected sibpairs. Exclusion mapping ruled out linkage at 14q21‐23 (λs [sib recurrence risk or genotypic risk ratio] = 1.8). Because the pericentromeric region of chromosome 16 has been identified by genome scans in several autoimmune diseases, we postulated that it might harbor an autoimmune modifier gene. To explore this possibility, we tested for an interaction between 16q12 and 1q23, and between 16q12 and 20p12. Haplotype sharing at 1q23 increased concomitantly with increased haplotype sharing at 16q12 (P = 0.008 by nonparametric Jonckheere‐Terpstra exact statistical test). No evidence supporting an interaction between 16q12 and 20p12 was observed. Analysis of sibpairs sharing 2 alleles at 16q12 also showed increased allele sharing at 1q23 (MAS from 0.56 to 0.65). Conclusion These data support the presence of SLE susceptibility genes at 1q23 and 16q12, particularly in non‐Caucasians. The skewed distribution of haplotypes suggests that genetic interaction of these two loci may affect SLE susceptibility.

During the latter part of the 20 th century, while a small number of exemplar city centre squares continued to be attractive places, the vast majority acquired either an image of empty spaces or an unattractive picture as traffic islands. This was emphasised by the decline of traditional community activities and the perception of comfort generated by internalising external space; coupled with a commodifying of cities in which they were merely viewed as commercial and retail opportunities. Communities need public spaces as places for assembly. They are the physical manifestation that each community is coherent and vibrant. Increasingly it is being recognised that identity and place have enormous roles in reinforcing society. The re-introduction of public squares is part of reversing the erosion of the public sector and the public realm, and reclaiming city centres from private interests for the benefit of communities. Criteria for comfortable external spaces have been researched, and these recognise the differences between northern and southern Europe. The most recent advances are in the simulation of city centre design; which includes geometry, uses, pedestrian movement and environmental conditions. There is confidence to be gained from visualisation of how squares will look, feel and be used; and will make a real contribution to sustainable urban design.

This paper reappraises a specific slum improvement programme in Nigeria that received financial backing from the World Bank. Utilising a large body of bespoke quantitative and qualitative primary research material, rarely available for slum settlements, critical attention is directed towards the mismatch between official project goals and the needs of inhabitants. The findings suggest that considerable funds have been misdirected and, arguably, wasted. It is contended that participation is not only important to identify the most crucial needs and potentialities of slum dwellers and communities -it is a major requirement for the ongoing maintenance and sustainability of urban change, which is the crux of place-based strategies. The proposition developed from this research is that considerably smaller sums of support could be channelled towards particular contexts, in a variety of place-based manners that account for spatial particularity, reflecting the specific needs and opportunities of particular communities. Of broader significance, this paper contributes to a reappraisal of slum improvement programmes, challenges some perceived wisdoms and suggests alternative approaches to the way that the issues raised could be tackled.