According to classical concepts of viral oncogenesis, the persistence of virus-specific oncogenes is required to maintain the transformed cellular phenotype. In contrast, the "hit-and-run" hypothesis claims that viruses can mediate cellular transformation through an initial "hit," while maintenance of the transformed state is compatible with the loss ("run") of viral molecules. It is well established that the adenovirus E1A and E1B gene products can cooperatively transform primary human and rodent cells to a tumorigenic phenotype and that these cells permanently express the viral oncogenes. Additionally, recent studies have shown that the adenovirus E4 region encodes two novel oncoproteins, the products of E4orf6 and E4orf3, which cooperate with the viral E1A proteins to transform primary rat cells in an E1B-like fashion. Unexpectedly, however, cells transformed by E1A and either E4orf6 or E4orf3 fail to express the viral E4 gene products, and only a subset contain E1A proteins. In fact, the majority of these cells lack E4-and E1A-specific DNA sequences, indicating that transformation occurred through a hit-and-run mechanism. We provide evidence that the unusual transforming activities of the adenoviral oncoproteins may be due to their mutagenic potential. Our results strongly support the possibility that even tumors that lack any detectable virus-specific molecules can be of viral origin, which could have a significant impact on the use of adenoviral vectors for gene therapy.The observation that a number of viral oncogenes are recurrently expressed in virus-transformed cells and in the corresponding tumors led to the general view that the persistence of virus-specific genes is required to maintain the transformed cellular phenotype (21). In contrast to this conventional concept of viral oncogenesis, the "hit-and-run" hypothesis, originally proposed by Skinner (31), claims that viruses can mediate cellular transformation through an initial "hit," while maintenance of the transformed state is compatible with the loss ("run") of viral molecules. The hit-and-run concept raises the intriguing possibility of an etiological role of viral agents in tumors that lack any viral genes and proteins.It is well established that cellular transformation by adenovirus type 5 (Ad5) is initiated through expression of the E1A oncogene, which is sufficient to immortalize cells, although transformation by E1A alone is inefficient and often incomplete (reviewed in references 6 and 29). The 19-and 55-kDa proteins expressed from the E1B transcription unit of Ad5 (E1B-19 kDa and E1B-55 kDa) can individually cooperate with Ad5 E1A proteins to increase transformation efficiency and to convert primary human and rodent cells to a fully transformed tumorigenic phenotype (6, 29). We and others have recently shown that two early region 4 (E4) gene products of Ad5, the E4orf6 (E4-34 kDa) and E4orf3 (E4-11 kDa) proteins, can also cooperate with E1A and E1A plus E1B to substantially enhance transformation (16,(18)(19)(20). Consistent with the conv...
Previous observations that the adenovirus type 5 (Ad5) E4orf6 and E4orf3 gene products have redundant effects in viral lytic infection together with the recent findings that E4orf6 possesses transforming potential prompted us to investigate the effect of E4orf3 expression on the transformation of primary rat cells in combination with adenovirus E1 oncogene products. Our results demonstrate for the first time that E4orf3 can cooperate with adenovirus E1A and E1A plus E1B proteins to transform primary baby rat kidney cells, acting synergistically with E4orf6 in the presence of E1B gene products. Transformed rat cells expressing E4orf3 exhibit morphological alterations, higher growth rates and saturation densities, and increased tumorigenicity compared with transformants expressing E1 proteins only. Consistent with previous results for adenovirus-infected cells, the E4orf3 protein is immunologically restricted to discrete nuclear structures known as PML oncogenic domains (PODs) in transformed rat cells. As opposed to E4orf6, the ability of E4orf3 to promote oncogenic cell growth is probably not linked to a modulation of p53 functions and stability. Instead, our results indicate that the transforming activities of E4orf3 are due to combinatorial effects that involve the binding to the adenovirus 55-kDa E1B protein and the colocalization with PODs independent from interactions with the PML gene product. These data fit well with a model in which the reorganization of PODs may trigger a cascade of processes that cause uncontrolled cell proliferation and neoplastic growth. In sum, our results provide strong evidence for the idea that interactions with PODs by viral proteins are linked to oncogenic transformation.
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