Blooms of cyanobacteria have been documented throughout history, all over the world. Mass populations of these organisms typically present hazards to human health and are known for the production of a wide range of highly toxic metabolites-cyanotoxins, of which among the most common and most investigated are the microcystins. The toxicity of the family of microcystin congeners to animal and cell models has received much attention; however, less is known about their negative effects on human health, whether via acute or chronic exposure. Useful information may be acquired through epidemiological studies since they can contribute to knowledge of the relationships between cyanotoxins and human health in environmental settings. The aim of this review is to compile and evaluate the available published reports and epidemiological investigations of human health incidents associated with exposure to mass populations of cyanobacteria from throughout the world and to identify the occurrence and likely role of microcystins in these events. After an initial screening of 134 publications, 42 publications (25 on the chronic and 17 on the acute effects of cyanotoxins) describing 33 cases of poisonings by cyanobacterial toxins in 11 countries were reviewed. The countries were Australia, China, Sri Lanka, Namibia, Serbia, Sweden, UK, Portugal, Brazil, USA, and Canada. At least 36 publications link cyanobacteria/cyanotoxins including microcystins to adverse human health effects. The studies were published between 1960 and 2016. Although the scattered epidemiological evidence does not provide a definitive conclusion, it can serve as additional information for the medical assessment of the role of microcystins in cancer development and other human health problems. This paper discusses the major cases of cyanotoxin poisonings as well as the strengths, weaknesses, and importance of the performed epidemiological research. This study also proposes some recommendations for future epidemiological work.

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BackgroundThe objective of this study was to investigate independent risk factors (RFs) connected with healthcare-associated (HA) Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in surgical patients, its frequency per surgical wards and in-hospital-mortality at a single hospital.MethodsRisk factors for the infection were prospectively assessed among surgical patients with laboratory confirmed HA CDI and compared with a control group without HA CDI.ResultsThe overall incidence rate of HA CDI was 2.6 per 10000 patient-days. Significant independent RFs for HA CDI were the use of carbapenems (P = 0.007, OR: 10.62, 95% CI: 1.93–58.4), the admission to intensive care unit (P = 0.004, OR:3.00, 95% CI:1.41–6.40), and the administration of 3rd generation cephalosporins (P = 0.014, OR:2.27, 95% CI:1.18–4.39). Patients with HA CDI had significantly higher in–hospital mortality compared to controls (P: 0.007; OR: 8.95; 95% CI: 1.84–43.43).ConclusionsCDI is an important HA infection in population of surgical patients and this study emphasizes the importance of the wise use of antibiotics, and other infection control strategies in order to prevent HA CDI, and to decrease the incidence and in-hospital mortality rate.

The results of our study are valuable confirmation of relations between risk factors and SSI in orthopedic patients. A decreasing incidence rate of SSI (from 4.6% to 1.6%) during a 4-year active surveillance approved its implementation as an important component of SSI reduction strategy.

This study shows that the quality of life impairment due to acne is mild for the majority of the affected pupils. The Serbian version of the CADI is a reliable, valid, and valuable tool for assessing the impact of acne on the quality of life.

Reduction in the incidence rate of CDAD can be achieved by using reliable measures of prevention and control; the rational use of antibiotics, early diagnosis and therapy of infected patients, contact isolation of infected persons, proper disinfection, and continued education of medical and nonmedical personnel.

Modern society has not forgotten yet epidemics that killed millions in the last millennium and the COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS CoV-2 has recently emerged. With the onset of the Wuhan epidemic in the Chinese province of Hubei, the initially called new corona virus due to the similarity of 80 % to the 2002 SARS virus was renamed to SARS CoV-2. The virus was originally isolated from bronchoalveolar aspirate specimens. Viral RNK was detected in 6 of 41 blood samples with clinical signs of infection. A senior Chinese expert told to the media that the median incubation period was 7 days, ranging from 2-1 2. The International Health Regulations Emergency Committee for Epidemics gives a preliminary estimate basic reproduction number R 0 of 1.4-2.5. COVID-19 is mainly transmitted by close contact with the infected by drops due to sneezing and coughing. Fever, cough, myalgia and fatigue are the predominant initial signs and symptoms. The clinical picture is non-specific. Exacerbation occurs suddenly, as bilateral interstitial pneumonia that requires admission to intensive care. Initial lethality in hospitalised cases was 15 %, but these estimates had to be taken with reserve as the situation evolved. According to recent data, the global fatality rate is 3.7 %, the lethality rate in China is 3.9 % and in Italy 6.8 %. According to data from the Chinese Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, of 44,672 confirmed cases 1,023 people died, therefore lethality was 2.3 %. In the absence of specific prevention and control measures, mankind is limited to general prevention measures.

The objective is to assess risk factors and microbiological aspects of hospital-acquired urinary tract infection (HAUTI) on six wards of a general regional hospital in Serbia. A case-control study was nested within prospective cohort HAUTIs study conducted from January 1 to December 31, 2007. Three controls were identified for each patient with HAUTI, being chronologically the next three patients surveyed who did not develop HAUTI. The patients and controls were matched by sex and age (±5 years). Assessment of 8,467 patients during the study period revealed HAUTI in 125 (116 symptomatic and 9 asymptomatic). The overall incidence rate of HAUTI was 14.8 cases/1,000 admissions. The mean age (range) of cases and controls was 64.9 (18-85) and 65.2 (17-86), respectively. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that duration of catheterization >5 days (OR = 51.91; 95% CI = 23.46-114.82) and the ASA score (OR = 13.42; 95% CI = 2.14-84.30) were independently associated with increased risk of HAUTIs. The most frequently isolated Gram-negative bacteria were Enterobacter, Klebsiella sp., Proteus mirabilis and Escherichia coli. Enterococcus sp. was the most frequent Gram-positive bacteria.