The field of microbiome research has evolved rapidly over the past few decades and has become a topic of great scientific and public interest. As a result of this rapid growth in interest covering different fields, we are lacking a clear commonly agreed definition of the term "microbiome." Moreover, a consensus on best practices in microbiome research is missing. Recently, a panel of international experts discussed the current gaps in the frame of the European-funded MicrobiomeSupport project. The meeting brought together about 40 leaders from diverse microbiome areas, while more than a hundred experts from all over the world took part in an online survey accompanying the workshop. This article excerpts the outcomes of the workshop and the corresponding online survey embedded in a short historical introduction and future outlook. We propose a definition of microbiome based on the compact, clear, and comprehensive description of the term provided by Whipps et al. in 1988, amended with a set of novel recommendations considering the latest technological developments and research findings. We clearly separate the terms microbiome and microbiota and provide a comprehensive discussion considering the composition of microbiota, the heterogeneity and dynamics of microbiomes in time and space, the stability and resilience of microbial networks, the definition of core microbiomes, and functionally relevant keystone species as well as co-evolutionary principles of microbe-host and inter-species interactions within the microbiome. These broad definitions together with the suggested unifying concepts will help to improve standardization of microbiome studies in the future, and could be the starting point for an integrated assessment of data resulting in a more rapid transfer of knowledge from basic science into practice. Furthermore, microbiome standards are important for solving new challenges associated with anthropogenic-driven changes in the field of planetary health, for which the understanding of microbiomes might play a key role.

Modified dietary interventions favorably influenced outcomes related to maternal glycemia and birth weight. This indicates that there is room for improvement in usual dietary advice for women with GDM.

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Since Norway experienced the devastating Gyrodactylus salaris (Monogenea) epidemics in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar, there has been heightened interest in how to treat gyrodactylosis in fish. Here we summarize chemical treatments previously used against gyrodactylids and discuss the main problems associated with these control measures including efficacy, host toxicity, human health concerns and application of treatments. Unfortunately, for these reasons and because of the different methodologies and different parasite and host species used in previous studies, it is difficult to recommend effective chemotherapeutic treatments. However, we suggest a method for manual removal of gyrodactylids from the host suitable for use in small-scale research facilities. KEY WORDS: Gyrodactylus · Control treatment · Efficacy · Toxicity Resale or republication not permitted without written consent of the publisherDis Aquat Org 86: [65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75] 2009 peared promising in laboratory studies (Soleng et al. 1999, 2005, Poléo et al. 2004, field trials in Norway using aluminium in combination with rotenone have been problematic because successful treatment of the whole river system requires maintaining a specific concentration without exceeding levels toxic to Atlantic salmon (P. Shave pers. comm.). Aluminium toxicity to fish increases under acidic water conditions (Birchall et al. 1989, Poléo 1995, Soleng et al. 1999, and elevated environmental aluminium levels can result in Alzheimer's disease (Doll 1993) and decreased agricultural and forestry productivity (Bi et al. 2001). Organophosphates, such as trichlorfon, are no longer in use against fish parasites as they cause irreversible effects in nontarget species by phosphorylating acetylcholinesterase (see Kozlovskaya & Mayer 1984, Peña-Llopis et al. 2003, Costa 2006. Acute and chronic toxicity to other aquatic organisms has also been reported for benzimidazoles (e.g. Oh et al. 2006); however, due to their low efficacy (see Appendix 1), these are not preferred over broad antiparasitic treatments such as formalin.In addition to efficacy, environmental and human health issues, the main problem associated with current gyrodactylid treatments is their toxicity to the host (Schmahl & Taraschewski 1987, Santamarina et al. 1991, Tojo et al. 1992, Scholz 1999, Ekanem et al. 2004, Srivastava et al. 2004. Even widely used compounds, such as formaldehyde, may significantly change the host's gill structure and epidermis (Speare et al. 1997, Sanchez et al. 1998, Buchmann et al. 2004). For instance, although zinc exposure initially stimulates host mucus production, mucus is subsequently depleted leaving the fish more susceptible to microbial infections (McGeer et al. 2000). If these fish are subsequently used for experimental infections without a sufficient recovery period, they may show an abnormal response to infection (see review by Bakke et al. 2007). Host respiratory problems are also a common side effect of gyrodactylid treatments due to dire...

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Theory predicts that sexual reproduction promotes disease invasion by increasing the evolutionary potential of the parasite, whereas asexual reproduction tends to enhance establishment success and population growth rate. Gyrodactylid monogeneans are ubiquitous ectoparasites of teleost fish, and the evolutionary success of the specious Gyrodactylus genus is thought to be partly due to their use of various modes of reproduction. Gyrodactylus turnbulli is a natural parasite of the guppy (Poecilia reticulata), a small, tropical fish used as a model for behavioural, ecological and evolutionary studies. Using experimental infections and a recently developed microsatellite marker, we conclusively show that monogenean parasites reproduce sexually. Conservatively, we estimate that sexual recombination occurs and that between 3.7–10.9% of the parasites in our experimental crosses are hybrid genotypes with ancestors from different laboratory strains of G. turnbulli. We also provide evidence of hybrid vigour and/or inter-strain competition, which appeared to lead to a higher maximum parasite load in mixed infections. Finally, we demonstrate inbreeding avoidance for the first time in platyhelminths which may influence the distribution of parasites within a host and their subsequent exposure to the host's localized immune response. Combined reproductive modes and inbreeding avoidance may explain the extreme evolutionary diversification success of parasites such as Gyrodactylus, where host-parasite coevolution is punctuated by relatively frequent host switching.

The microbiome research field is rapidly evolving, but the required biobanking infrastructure is currently fragmented and not prepared for the biobanking of microbiomes. The rapid advancement of technologies requires an urgent assessment of how biobanks can underpin research by preserving microbiome samples and their functional potential.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via the original article.