We present the concept of instructional program coherence and explain why school improvement frameworks that incorporate instructional program coherence are more likely to advance student achievement than multiple, unrelated efforts. We present evidence that Chicago elementary schools with stronger instructional program coherence make higher gains in student achievement. We also share observations on how, in specific schools, principals and external partners directed key school resources toward the development of instructional program coherence. In closing, we discuss factors within the educational system that discourage instructional program coherence and suggest ways that school leaders, school improvement partners, and policymakers can support greater instructional program coherence.
This study examined the "opportunifies to learn" related fo the democratic purposes of schooling that students receive in eighth, ninth, and tenth grade social studies classrooms. We iden tifiedfive prominentframeworks linking ctrrrictrlar sf rafegies fo the preparation of citizms fur a democratic society. We then created rubrics that rejlected these conceptions and used these rubrics to code obsemafions of 135 social studies classroom in Chicago. Wefollnd thaf st uden ts in this represen tat ive sample of social sfudies classrooms received an alarming lack of opportunities fo develop the kinds of capacities democratic theorisfs believe are important. We atsofound fhat when teachers provided students with more and varied opporfunifies to develop as ci tizens, that they simultaneorisIy pmided significantly more opporhinit iesfor higher order thinking and for deep and disciplined inquiry. Finally, we found that when eighth grade teachers were prepring students for the State-mandated constit~ltion test (the stare requirement most explicitly linked to civic goals), they provided significantly fewer opportunities relafed to developing citizens than when they focused on other eighth grade curriadlswr.
Recent educational policy reports in the U.S. have called for significant changes in teachers' work to increase their effectiveness. The paper examines the relationship between the restructuring strategies in two comprehensive high schools and teachers' engagement, which is defined as a multi-dimensional construct. In one school, the restructuring strategies focused on creating a supportive climate for students, and in empowering students and teachers; in the other, emphasis was on developing professional skills of the faculty and strengthening group cohesiveness. The implications of the strategies for teacher engagement are illustrated with case study data. The discussion points to several conclusions: (1) the effects of restructuring are more bounded than is often assumed; (2) a quality of work life framework drawn from the social scientific literatures is useful for analyzing the effects of reform policies on teachers' work; (3) teachers make trade-offs between different types of engagement in order to increase their work satisfaction; and (4) restructuring has potential for increasing teachers' engagement in schools with mixed socio-economic and racial populations.
This article shares a series of instructional time analyses to illustrate how school management, social and cultural welfare programs, high-stakes testing, system policies, and a flawed notion of organizational efficiency combine to cripple enormous blocks of annual instructional time in a large urban district. Data analyzed were classroom observation records, field notes, teacher interviews, school calendars, and system documents. School trends that fragment and erode instructional time and reformers' reluctance to rethink instructional time are discussed. In closing, administrators are urged to view the allocation and management of time as one of their most important and powerful functions, and actions to recover instructional time for teachers and students are outlined. Forthepasttwodecades,researchandinterventioninurbanschoolshavecentered on how to institute more ambitious learning standards and how to improve the quality of curricula, pedagogy, and assessment. Concentrated attention to program quality essentially sidelined quantitative matters such as instructional time allocations or students' time on task. Policy makers and administrators were warned away from thinking that "more of the same" could help schools reach new goals (Fenstermacher). The reasoning seemed sensible: Adding to teachers' and students' schedules made little sense until fundamental improvements in instruction and student engagement were achieved.The study reported here questions the notion that the quantity of instructional time is a secondary problem. It documents how much instructional time urban schools actually deliver to students and suggests that weak and 652
Purpose: This research examined whether the removal of certification and other requirements led to larger or more diverse applicant pools for superintendent positions in Michigan. Michigan has not had any degree or certification requirements for educational administrators for many years and provided an empirical test of whether deregulation draws new talent into the field. Research Design, Methods: The research was designed as a state-level case study employing quantitative and qualitative methods to develop descriptive findings and analytic interpretations. Data Collection and Analysis: Data on superintendent search processes and applicant pools between 1996 and 2005 were collected. Sources of data included superintendent search files and semistructured interviews with search consultants, private sector recruiters, out-of-field superintendent candidates, professional association leaders, and other actors. Findings: Removing certification and other requirements did not attract new talent into the field, did not stimulate new search systems, and did not generate interest among schools boards, their constituents, or other external agents. Over the 9-year period studied, superintendent applicant pools in Michigan underwent the same troubling trends in applicant pools and turnover as the nation overall. Implications: No cavalry of talented executives lurks behind a wall of certification waiting to spread its talents to the nation's districts. Absent significant changes to a web of social, economic, and institutional factors, the likelihood that deregulation policies will affect educational leadership and school organizations is very low.
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