Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism, collectively termed venous thromboembolism (VTE), affect over 1 million Americans each year. VTE is triggered by inflammation and blood stasis leading to the formation of thrombi rich in fibrin and red blood cells (RBCs). However, little is known about mechanisms regulating fibrin and RBC incorporation into venous thrombi, or how these components mediate thrombus size or resolution. Both elevated circulating fibrinogen (hyperfibrinogenemia) and abnormal fibrin(ogen) structure and function, including increased fibrin network density and resistance to fibrinolysis, have been observed in plasmas from patients with VTE. Abnormalities in RBC number and/or function have also been associated with VTE risk. RBC contributions to VTE are thought to stem from their effects on blood viscosity and margination of platelets to the vessel wall. More recent studies suggest RBCs also express phosphatidylserine, support thrombin generation, and decrease fibrinolysis. RBC interactions with fibrin(ogen) and cells, including platelets and endothelial cells, may also promote thrombus formation. The contributions of fibrin(ogen) and RBCs to the pathophysiology of VTE warrants further investigation. Venous thrombosis/thromboembolism (deep vein thrombosis and/or pulmonary embolism; VTE), affects over 1 million Americans each year [1]. VTE is triggered by intravascular activation of coagulation and thrombin-mediated intraluminal fibrin deposition [2][3][4]. Red blood cells (RBCs) are thought to be incorporated into venous thrombi via passive trapping in the growing fibrin network, culminating in the production of a RBC-and fibrin-rich venous thrombus. However, little is known about mechanisms regulating fibrin deposition and RBC incorporation into venous thrombi, or how fibrin(ogen) and RBCs contribute to venous thrombus size or resolution. This review will discuss how fibrinogen, RBCs, and interactions between the two may contribute to VTE.

Thrombus formation leading to vaso-occlusive events is a major cause of death, and involves complex interactions between coagulation, fibrinolytic and innate immune systems. Leukocyte recruitment is a key step, mediated partly by chemotactic complement activation factors C3a and C5a. However, mechanisms mediating C3a/C5a generation during thrombosis have not been studied. In a murine venous thrombosis model, levels of thrombin–antithrombin complexes poorly correlated with C3a and C5a, excluding a central role for thrombin in C3a/C5a production. However, clot weight strongly correlated with C5a, suggesting processes triggered during thrombosis promote C5a generation. Since thrombosis elicits fibrinolysis, we hypothesized that plasmin activates C5 during thrombosis. In vitro, the catalytic efficiency of plasmin-mediated C5a generation greatly exceeded that of thrombin or factor Xa, but was similar to the recognized complement C5 convertases. Plasmin-activated C5 yielded a functional membrane attack complex (MAC). In an arterial thrombosis model, plasminogen activator administration increased C5a levels. Overall, these findings suggest plasmin bridges thrombosis and the immune response by liberating C5a and inducing MAC assembly. These new insights may lead to the development of strategies to limit thrombus formation and/or enhance resolution.

Red blood cells (RBCs) demonstrate procoagulant properties in vitro, and elevated hematocrit is associated with reduced bleeding and increased thrombosis risk in humans. These observations suggest RBCs contribute to thrombus formation. However, effects of RBCs on thrombosis are difficult to assess because humans and mice with elevated hematocrit typically have coexisting pathologies. Using an experimental model of elevated hematocrit in healthy mice, we measured effects of hematocrit in 2 in vivo clot formation models. We also assessed thrombin generation, platelet-thrombus interactions, and platelet accumulation in thrombi ex vivo, in vitro and in silico. Compared with controls, mice with elevated hematocrit (RBC) formed thrombi at a faster rate and had a shortened vessel occlusion time. Thrombi in control and RBC mice did not differ in size or fibrin content, and there was no difference in levels of circulating thrombin-antithrombin complexes. In vitro, increasing the hematocrit increased thrombin generation in the absence of platelets; however, this effect was reduced in the presence of platelets. In silico, direct numerical simulations of whole blood predicted elevated hematocrit increases the frequency and duration of interactions between platelets and a thrombus. When human whole blood was perfused over collagen at arterial shear rates, elevating the hematocrit increased the rate of platelet deposition and thrombus growth. These data suggest RBCs promote arterial thrombosis by enhancing platelet accumulation at the site of vessel injury. Maintaining a normal hematocrit may reduce arterial thrombosis risk in humans.

Objective Individuals with elevated prothrombin, including those with the prothrombin G20210A mutation, have increased risk of venous thrombosis. Although these individuals do not have increased circulating prothrombotic biomarkers, their plasma demonstrates increased tissue factor-dependent thrombin generation in vitro. The objectives of this study were to determine the pathologic role of elevated prothrombin in venous and arterial thrombosis in vivo, and distinguish thrombogenic mechanisms in these vessels. Approach and results Prothrombin was infused into mice to raise circulating levels. Venous thrombosis was induced by electrolytic stimulus to the femoral vein or inferior vena cava ligation. Arterial thrombosis was induced by electrolytic stimulus or ferric chloride application to the carotid artery. Mice infused with prothrombin demonstrated increased tissue factor-triggered thrombin generation measured ex vivo, but did not have increased circulating prothrombotic biomarkers in the absence of vessel injury. Following venous injury, elevated prothrombin increased thrombin generation and the fibrin accumulation rate and total amount of fibrin ~3-fold, producing extended thrombi with increased mass. However, elevated prothrombin did not accelerate platelet accumulation, increase the fibrin accumulation rate, or shorten the vessel occlusion time following arterial injury. Conclusions These findings reconcile previously discordant findings regarding thrombin generation in hyperprothrombinemic individuals measured ex vivo and in vitro, and show elevated prothrombin promotes venous, but not arterial, thrombosis in vivo.

Summary Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Among cardiovascular causes of death, venous thrombosis (VT) is ranked third most common in the world. Venous thrombi have high red blood cell and fibrin content; however, the pathophysiologic mechanisms that contribute to venous thrombus composition and stability are still poorly understood. This article reviews biological, biochemical, and biophysical contributions of fibrinogen, factor XIII, and red blood cells to VT, and new evidence suggesting interactions between these components mediate venous thrombus composition and size.

Willis MS. Muscle RING finger-1 attenuates IGF-I-dependent cardiomyocyte hypertrophy by inhibiting JNK signaling.

Background Elevated plasma fibrinogen associates with arterial thrombosis in humans and promotes thrombosis in mice by increasing fibrin formation and thrombus fibrin content. Fibrinogen is composed of six polypeptide chains: (Aα, Bβ, and γ)2. Alternative splicing of the γ chain leads to a dominant form (γA/γA) and a minor species (γA/γ’). Epidemiologic studies have detected elevated γA/γ’ fibrinogen in patients with arterial thrombosis, suggesting this isoform promotes thrombosis. However, in vitro data show that γA/γ’ is anticoagulant due to its ability to sequester thrombin, and suggest its expression is upregulated in response to inflammatory processes. Objective To determine whether γA/γ’ fibrinogen is prothrombotic in vivo. Methods We separated γA/γA and γA/γ’ fibrinogen from human plasma-purified fibrinogen and determined effects on in vitro plasma clot formation, and in vivo thrombus formation and circulating thrombin-antithrombin complexes in mice. Results and Conclusions Both γA/γA and γA/γ’ fibrinogen were cleaved by murine and human thrombin and were incorporated into murine and human clots. When γA/γA or γA/γ’ was spiked into plasma, γA/γA increased the fibrin formation rate to a greater extent than γA/γ’. In mice, compared to controls, γA/γA infusion shortened the time to carotid artery occlusion, whereas γA/γ’ infusion did not. Additionally, γA/γ’ infusion led to lower levels of plasma thrombin-antithrombin complexes following arterial injury, whereas γA/γA infusion did not. These data suggest that γA/γ’ binds thrombin in vivo, and decreases prothrombotic activity. Together, these findings indicate that elevated levels of γA/γA fibrinogen promote arterial thrombosis in vivo, whereas γA/γ’ does not.

SummaryIdentifying coagulation abnormalities in patients with combined bleeding and thrombosis history is clinically challenging. Our goal was to probe the complexity of dysregulated coagulation in humans by characterizing pathophysiologic mechanisms in a patient with both bleeding and thrombosis. The patient is a 56-year-old female with a history of haematomas, poor wound healing, and thrombosis (retinal artery occlusion and transient cerebral ischaemia). She had a normal activated partial thromboplastin time, prolonged thrombin and reptilase times, and decreased functional and antigenic fibrinogen levels, and was initially diagnosed with hypodysfibrinogenaemia. This diagnosis was supported by DNA analysis revealing a novel FGB mutation (c.656A>G) predicting a Q189R mutation in the mature chain that was present in the heterozygote state. However, turbidity analysis showed that purified fibrinogen polymerisation and degradation were indistinguishable from normal, and Bβ chain subpopulations appeared normal by two-dimensional difference in-gel electrophoresis, indicating the mutated chain was not secreted. Interestingly, plasma thrombin generation testing revealed the patient’s thrombin generation was higher than normal and could be attributed to elevated levels of factor VIII (FVIII, 163–225%). Accordingly, in an arterial injury model, hypofibrinogenaemic mice (Fgn+/−) infused with factor VIII demonstrated significantly shorter vessel occlusion times than saline-infused Fgn+/− mice. Together, these data associate the complex bleeding and thrombotic presentation with combined hypofibrinogenaemia plus plasma hypercoagulability. These findings suggest previous cases in which fibrinogen abnormalities have been associated with thrombosis may also be complicated by co-existing plasma hypercoagulability and illustrate the importance of “global” coagulation testing in patients with compound presentations.